Hostname: page-component-5b777bbd6c-gcwzt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-06-20T18:53:07.792Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Security of infantile attachment as assessed in the “strange situation”: Its study and biological interpretation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

Michael E. Lamb ,
Ross A. Thompson ,
William P. Gardner ,
Eric L. Charnov  and
David Estes
Michael E. Lamb
Affiliation:
Departments of Psychology, Psychiatry, and Pediatrics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112
Ross A. Thompson
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. 68588
William P. Gardner
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. 22901
Eric L. Charnov
Affiliation:
Departments of Biology, Anthropology, and Psychology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112
David Estes
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. 48109
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The Strange Situation procedure was developed by Ainsworth two decades agoas a means of assessing the security of infant-parent attachment. Users of the procedureclaim that it provides a way of determining whether the infant has developed species-appropriate adaptive behavior as a result of rearing in an evolutionary appropriate context, characterized by a sensitively responsive parent. Only when the parent behaves in the sensitive, species-appropriate fashion is the baby said to behave in the adaptive or secure fashion. Furthermore, when infants are observed repeatedly in the Strange Situation,the pattern of behavior is said to be highly similar, and this pattern is said to predict the infants' future behavior in a diverse array of contexts. After an exhaustive review of the literature, it is shown that these popular claims are empirically unsupported in their strong form, and that the interpretations in terms of biological adaptationare misguided. There is little reliable evidence about the specific dimensions of parental behavior that affect Strange Situation behavior, although there does appear to be some relationship between these constructs. Temporal stability in security of attachment ishigh only when there is stability in family and caretaking circumstances. Likewise, patterns of Strange Situation behavior only have substantial predictive validity in similarly stable families. Implications for future research and theorizing — particularly as they relate to the use of evolutionary biology in psychological theory — are discussed.

Keywords

adaptationattachmentdevelopmentearly experienceevolutioninfancymaternal behaviormother-infant attachmentsociobiology
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 7 , Issue 1 , March 1984 , pp. 127 - 147
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1984

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1967) Infancy in Uganda: Infant care and the growth of love. Johns Hopkins University Press. [KEG]Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1973) The development of infant-mother attachment. In: Review of child development research, vol. 3, ed. Caldwell, B. M. & Ricciuti, H. N.. University of Chicago Press. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1974) The secure base. Johns Hopkins University. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1979a) Attachment as related to mother-infant interaction. In: Advances in the Study of Behavior, vol. 9, ed. Rosenblatt, J. S.Hinde, B. A.Beer, C. & Busnel, M.. Academic Press. [tarMEL, EAS]Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1979b) Infant-mother attachment. American Psychologist 34: 932–37.[taMEL, EAS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1979c) Infant-mother attachment: Retrospect and prospect. Presidential address to the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research on Child Development, San Francisco. [SF]Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S. & Bell, S. M. (1969) Some contemporary patterns of mother-infant interaction in the feeding situation. In: Stimulation in early infancy, ed. Ambrose, A.. Academic Press. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1974) Mother-infant interaction and the development of competence. In: The growth of competence, ed. Connolly, K. J. & Bruner, J.. Academic Press. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Bell, S. M. & Stayton, D. J. (1971) Individual differences in strange situation behavior of one-year-olds. In: The origins of human social relations, ed. Schaffer, H. R.. Academic Press. [taMEL, EAS]Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1972) Individual differences in the development of some attachment behaviors. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 18:123–43. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1974) Infant mother attachment and social development: “Socialization” as a product of reciprocal responsiveness to signals. In: The integration of a child into a social world, ed. Richards, M. P. M.. Cambridge University Press. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E. & Wall, S. (1978) In: Patterns of attachment, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [SF, KEG, tarMEL, EAS]Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. & Wittig, B. A. (1969) Attachment and exploratory behavior of one year olds in a strange situation. In: Determinants of infant behaviour, vol. 4, ed. Foss, B. M.. Methuen. [taMEL, JCM]Google Scholar
Alexander, R. D. (1964) The evolution of social behavior. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 5:324–83. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Alexander, R. D. & Tinkle, D. W., eds. (1981) Natural selection and social behavior: Recent research and new theory, Chiron. [DFH]Google Scholar
Ambrose, J. A. (1960) The smiling and related responses in early human infancy: An experimental and theoretical study of their course and significance. Doctoral dissertation, University of London. [JKK]Google Scholar
Arend, R., Gove, F. L. & Sroufe, L. A. (1979) Continuity of individual adaptation from infancy to kindergarten; A predictive study of ego-resiliency and curiosity in preschoolers. Child Development 50:950–59. [SF, taMEL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bartko, J. J. (1966) The intraclass correlation coefficient as a measure of reliability. Psychological Reports 19:3-11 [DVC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bartko, J. J. (1974) Corrective note to The intraclass correlation coefficient as a measure of reliability. Psychological Reports 34:1–11. [DVC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bechtold, H. (1959) Construct validity: A critique. American Psychologist 14:619–29. [JCM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell, S. M. V. (1970) The development of the concept of object as related to infant-mother attachment. Child Development 41:291–311. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell, S. M. V. & Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1972) Infant crying and maternal responsiveness. Child Development 43:1171–90. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J. & Garduque, L. (1982) The interrelation of attachment and free and elicited play behavior. Paper presented to the International Conference on Infant Studies, Austin, Tex. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Belsky, J., Rovine, M. & Taylor, D. (1983) The origins of individual differences in infant-mother attachment: Maternal and infant contributions. Child Development 54, in press. [rMEL]Google Scholar
Belsky, J., Taylor, D. & Rovine, M. (1983) The development of reciprocal interaction in the mother-infant dyad. Child Development 54, in press. [rMEL]Google Scholar
Blanchard, M. & Main, M. (1979) Avoidance of the attachment figure and social-emotional adjustment in day-care infants. Developmental Psychology 15:445–46. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blatz, W. E. (1966) Human security: Some reflections. University of Toronto Press. [DFH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blehar, M., Lieberman, A. & Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1977) Early face-to-face interaction and its relation to later infant-mother attachment. Child Development 48:182–94. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Block, J. H. & Block, J. (1980) The role of ego-control and ego-resiliency in the organization of behavior. In: Minnesota symposium on child psychology, vol. 11, ed. Collins, W. A.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1958) The nature of the child's tie to his mother. International Journal of Psychoanalysis 39:350–73. [DFH, SBP]Google ScholarPubMed
Bowlby, J. (1969) Attachment and loss, vol. 1, Attachment. Basic Books. [MTG, DFH, tarMEL, SBP, EAS]Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1973) Separation. Hogarth. [KEC]Google Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979) The ecology of human development. Harvard University Press. [rMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, R. T. (1978) Three scientists in search of a theorist (apologies to Pirandello). Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1:440–41. [RTB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, R. T. & Hamilton, A. S. (1977) Imprinting: Effects of discrepancy from rearing conditions on approach to a familiar imprinting object in a novel situation. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 91:784–93. [RTB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bühler, K. (1965) Die Krise der Psychologie (The crisis of psychology). 3d ed.Fischer. 1st ed. 1927. [KEG]Google Scholar
Burdock, E. E., Fleiss, J. L. & Hardesty, A. S. (1963) A new view of interobserver agreement. Personnel Psychology 16:373–84. [DVC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cairns, R. (1972) Attachment and dependency: A psychobiological and social learning synthesis. In: Attachment and dependency, ed. Gewirtz, J. L.. Winston. [DFH]Google Scholar
Cairns, R. (1979) Social development: The origins and plasticity of behavior. Freeman. [JCM]Google Scholar
Campbell, D. T. (1966) Pattern matching as an essential in distal knowing. Holt Rinehart & Winston. [KEG]Google Scholar
Cantor, N. & Mischel, W. (1979) Prototypes in person perception. In: Advances in experimental social psychology, vol. 12, ed. Berkowitz, L.. Academic Press. [RTB]Google Scholar
Charlesworth, B. (1980) Evolution in age-structured populations. Cambridge University Press. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Charnov, E. L. & Krebs, J. (1974) On clutch size and fitness. IBIS 116:217–219. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chess, S. & Thomas, A. (1982a) Infant bonding: Mystique and reality. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 52:213–22. [RTB, SC, SF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chess, S. & Thomas, A. (1982b) Reply to Sroufe and Waters. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 52:746–47. [RTB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D. V. (1976) Assessing inter-rater reliability for rating scales: Resolving some basic issues. British Journal of Psychiatry 129:452–56. [DVC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D. V. (1981) Testing the normal approximation of minimal sample size requirements of weighted kappa when the number of categories is large. Applied Psychological Measurement 5:101–4. [DVC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D. V., Aivano, S. L. & Vitale, J. (1976) A computer program for assessing the reliability and systematic bias of individual measurements. Educational and Psychological Measurement 36:761–64. [DVC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D. V., Aivano, S. L. & Vitale, J. (1977) Computer programs for assessing rater agreement and rater bias for qualitative data. Educational and Psychological Measurement 37:195–201.[DVC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D. V. & Conn, H. O. (1976) A statistical analysis of reviewer agreement and bias in evaluating medical abstracts. Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 49:373–83. [DVC]Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D. V. & Fleiss, J. L. (1977) Comparison of the null distributions of weighted kappa and the C ordinal statistic. Applied Psychological Measurement 1:195–201. [DVC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D. V. & Heavens, R. (1979) RATCAT (Rater Agreement/Categorical Data). American Statistician 33:91. [DVC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D. V., Heavens, R. & Didriksen, J. (1983) A computer program for assessing the reliability of nominal scales using varying sets of multiple raters. Available upon request. [DVC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D. V., Lee, C., Fontana, A. F. & Noel, Dowds B. (1978) A computer program for assessing specific category rater agreement for qualitative data. Educational and Psychological Measurement 38:805–13. [DVC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D. V. & Sparrow, S. S. (1981) Developing criteria for establishing the interrater reliability of specific items in a given inventory. American Journal of Mental Deficiency 86:127–37. [DVC]Google Scholar
Cochrane, R. & Robertson, A. (1973) The life events inventory: A measure of the relative severity of psycho-social stresses. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 17:135–39. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, J. (1960) A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement 20:37–46. [DVC, taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, J. (1968) Weighted kappa: Nominal scale agreement with provision for scaled disagreement or partial credit. Psychological Bulletin 70:213–20. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colwell, R. K. & King, M.-C. (1983) Disentangling genetic and cultural influences on human behavior: Problems and prospects. In: Comparing behavior: Studying man studying animals, ed. Rajecki, D. W.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [DWR]Google Scholar
Conger, A. J. (1980) Integration and generalization of kappa for multiple raters. Psychological Bulletin 88:322–28. [DVC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Connell, D. B. (1976) Individual differences in attachment: An investigation into stability, implications, and relationships to structure of early language development. Doctoral dissertation, Syracuse University. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Connell, J. P. & Goldsmith, H. H. (1982) A structural modeling approach to the study of attachment and Strange Situation behaviors. In: The development of attachment and affiliatice systems, ed. Emde, R. N. & Harmon, R. J.. Plenum Press. [RTB, SF, taMEL]Google Scholar
Crockenberg, S. B. (1981) Infant irritability, mother responsiveness, and social support influences on the security of infant-mother attachment. Child Development 52:857–65. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cronbach, L. & Meehl, P. (1955) Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin 52:281–302. [CJM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daly, M. & Wilson, M. (1983) Sex, evolution, and behavior. 2d ed.Willard Grant Press. [rMEL]Google Scholar
Dargasies, S. (1962) The first smile. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 4:531–33. [JKK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darwin, C. (1872) The expression of the emotions in man and animals. Murray, John. Repr. University of Chicago Press, 1965. [JKK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, M. & Fleiss, J. L. (1982) Measuring agreement for multinomial data. Biometrics 38:1047–51. [DVC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawkins, R. & Carlisle, R. T. (1974) Parental investment, mate desertion and a fallacy. Nature 262:131–32. [SBP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Denenberg, V. H. (1964) Critical periods, stimulation input and emotional reactivity: A theory of infantile stimulation. Psychological Review 71:335–51. [VHD]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Denenberg, V. H. (1968) A consideration of the usefulness of the critical period hypothesis as applied to the stimulation of rodents in infancy. In: Early experience and behavior, ed. G. Newton & S. Levine. Thomas. [VHD]Google Scholar
Denenberg, V. H. (1969) The effects of early experiences. In: The behaviour of domestic animals, ed. Hafez, E. S. E.. Bailliere, Tindall & Cassell. [VHD]Google Scholar
Denenberg, V. H. (1970) Experimental programming of life histories and the creation of individual differences: A review. In: Miami symposium on the prediction of behavior, 1968: Effects of early experience, ed. Jones, M. R.. University of Miami Press. [VHD]Google Scholar
Denenberg, V. H. (1977) Interactional effects in early experience research. In: Genetics, environment and intelligence, ed. Oliverio, A.. Elsevier. [VHD]Google Scholar
Denenberg, V. H. (1979) Paradigms and paradoxes in the study of behavioral development. In: Origins of the infant's social responsiveness, ed. Thoman, E.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [VHD]Google Scholar
Denenberg, V. H. (1982) Early experience, interactive systems, and brain laterality in rodents. In: Facilitating infant and early childhood development, ed. Bond, L. A. & Joffe, J. M.. University Press of New England. [VHD]Google Scholar
Duck, S. W. (1982) Personal relationships, vol. 4, Dissolving personal relationships. Academic Press. [JCM]Google Scholar
Easterbrooks, M. A. & Lamb, M. E. (1979) The relationship between quality of infant-mother attachment and infant competence in initial encounters with peers. Child Development 50:380–87. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Egeland, B., Breitenbucher, M., Dodds, M., Pastor, D. & Rosenberg, D. (1979) Life stress scale and scoring manual. University of Minnesota. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Egeland, B. & Farber, E. A. (in preparation) Antecedents of infant-mother attachment relationships in economically disadvantaged families. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Egeland, B. & Sroufe, L. A. (1981) Attachment and early maltreatment. Child Developtnent 52:44–52. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. (1970) Ethology: The biology of behavior. Holt, Rinehart & Winston. [JKK]Google Scholar
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. (1979) Human ethology: Concepts and implications for the sciences of man. Behacioral and Brain Sciences 2:1–57. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emde, R. N. (1978) Commentary in Sameroff, A. J., ed. Organization and stability of newborn behavior. Monographs for Social Research in Child Development, vol. 43, nos. 5–6. [SC]Google Scholar
Epstein, S. (1983) A research paradigm for the study of personality and emotions. In Personality – current theory and research, ed.Page, M. M.. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 1982. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. [RTB]Google Scholar
Erickson, M. F. & Crichton, L. (1981) Antecedents of compliance in 2-year-olds from a high-risk sample. Paper presented to the Society for Research in Child Development, Boston. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Estes, D. (1981) Maternal behavior and security of attachment at 12 and 19 months. Master's thesis, University of Michigan. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Estes, D., Lamb, M. E., Thompson, R. A. & Dickstein, S. (1981) Maternal affective quality and security of attachment at 12 and 19 months. Paper presented to the Society for Research in Child Development, Boston. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Farber, E. A. (1981) Factors related to changes in infant-mother relationships. Paper presented to the Society for Research in Child Development, Boston. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Fleiss, J. L. (1971) Measuring nominal scale agreement among many raters. Psychological Bulletin 76:378–82. [DVC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fleiss, J. L. (1975) Measuring agreement between two judges on the presence or absence of a trait. Biometrics 31:651–59. [DVC]Google Scholar
Fleiss, J. L. (1981) Statistical methods for rates and proportions. 2d ed.Wiley. [DVC]Google Scholar
Fleiss, J. L. & Cicchetti, D. V. (1978) Inference about weighted kappa in the non-null case. Applied Psychological Measurement 2:113–17. [DVC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fleiss, J. L., Cohen, J. & Everitt, B. (1969) Large sample standard errors of kappa and weighted kappa. Psychological Bulletin 72:323–27. [DVC, taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fleiss, J. L. & Cuzick, J. (1979) The reliability of dichotomous judgments: Unequal numbers of judges per subject. Applied Psychological Measurement 3:537–42. [DVC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fleiss, J. L., Nee, J. C. M. & Landis, J. R. (1979) The large sample variance of kappa in the case of different sets of raters. Psychological Bulletin 86:974–77. [DVC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freedman, D. G. (1964) Smiling in blind infants and the issue of innate versus acquired. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 5:171–84. [JKK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freedman, D. G. (1974) Human infancy: An evolutionary approach. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [DGF, JKK]Google Scholar
Freeman, D. (1983) Margaret Mead and Samoa: The making and unmaking of an anthropological myth. Harvard University Press. [JKK]Google Scholar
Freud, S. (1940) An outline of psychoanalysis. Norton. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Gardner, W. P., Lamb, M. E. & Thompson, R. A. (in preparation) On the quantitative consistency of the Strange Situation classification system. [SF, taMEL]Google Scholar
Gardner, W. P. & Thompson, R. A. (1983) A cluster analytic evaluation of the Strange Situation classification system. Paper presented to the Society for Research in Child Development, Detroit. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Gewirtz, J. L. (1961) A learning analysis of the effects of normal stimulation, privation, and deprivation on the acquisition of social motivation and attachment. In Determinants of infant behaviour, ed. Foss, B. M.. Methuen/Wiley. [SBF]Google Scholar
Gewirtz, J. L. (1969) Mechanisms of social learning: Some roles of stimulation and behavior in early human development. In: Handbook of socialization theory and research, ed. Goslin, D. A.. Rand McNally. [SBP]Google Scholar
Gewirtz, J. L. (1972) On the selection and use of attachment and dependency indices. In: Attachment and dependency, ed. Gewirtz, J. L.. Winston. [SBP]Google Scholar
Gewirtz, J. L. & Boyd, E. F. (1977) Experiments on mother-infant interaction underlying mutual attachment acquisition: The infant conditions the mother. In: Attachment behavior: Advances in the study of communication and affect, vol. 3, ed. Alloway, T.Pliner, P., & Krames, L.. Plenum Press. [SBP]Google Scholar
Gewirtz, J. L. & Petrovich, S. B. (1982) Early social and attachment learning in the frame of organic and cultural evolution. In: Review of human development, ed. Field, T. M.Huston, A.Quay, H. C.Troll, L., & Finley, G. E.. Wiley. [SBP]Google Scholar
Ghiselin, M. T. (1974) The economy of nature and the evolution of sex. University of California Press. [MTG, taMEL]Google Scholar
Goldsmith, H. H. & Campos, J. J. (1982) Toward a theory of infant temperament. In: The development of attachment and affiliative systems, ed. Emde, R. N. & Harmon, R. J.. Plenum Press. [RTB]Google Scholar
Goodman, L. A. & Kruskal, W. H. (1954) Measures of association for cross-classifications. Journal of the American Statistical Association 49:732–64. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Gottman, J. M. & Levenson, R. W. (in press) Why marriages fail: Affective and physiological patterns in marital interaction. In: Boundary areas in psychology: Social and developmental, ed. Masters, J. & Yarkin-Levin, K.. Academic Press. [JCM]Google Scholar
Grossmann, K. & Grossmann, K. E. (1982) Maternal sensitivity to infants’ signals during the first year as related to the year old's behavior in Ainsworth's Strange Situation in a sample of northern German families. Paper presented at the International Conference on Infant Studies, Austin, Tex. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Grossmann, K., Grossmann, K. E., Spangler, G., Suess, G., & Unzner, L. (in press) Maternal sensitivity and newborns’ orientation responses as related to quality of attachment in northern Germany. In: Growing points in attachment theory and research, ed. Bretherton, I. & Waters, E.. Monograph of the Society for Research in Child Development. [KEG]Google Scholar
Grossmann, K. E. (1981) Infant and social environment interaction: Epistemological considerations behind the ethological approach. Paper presented to the Society for Research in Child Development, Boston. [KEG]Google Scholar
Grossmann, K. E. (1983) Historical contributions of German developmental psychology. Paper presented to the Society for Research in Child Development, Detroit. [KEG]Google Scholar
Grossmann, K. E. & Grossmann, K. (1983) Cultural and temperamental aspects of the avoidant attachment behavior patterns in infants. Paper presented to the Society for Research in Child Development, Detroit. [rMEL]Google Scholar
Grossmann, K. E., Grossmann, K., Huber, F. & Wartner, U. (1981) German children's behavior towards their mothers at 12 months and their fathers at 18 months in Ainsworth's Strange Situation. International Journal of Behavioral Development 4:157–81. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grossmann, K. E., Schwan, Z. & Grossmann, K. (in preparation) Infants’ communications after brief separation: A reanalysis of Ainsworth's Strange Situation. In: Measuring emotions in infants and children, vol. 3, ed. Read, P. B. & Izard, C. E.. [KEG]Google Scholar
Gubernick, D. (1981) Parent and infant attachment in mammals. In: Parental care in mammals, ed. Gubernick, D. & Klopfer, P.. Plenum Press. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haeckel, E. (1866) Cenerelle Morphologie der Organismen. Georg Reimer. [MTG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haith, M. (1982) Attachment research: Prospect and progress. In: The development of attachment and affiliative systems, ed. Emde, R. N. & Harmon, R. J.. Plenum Press. [RTB]Google Scholar
Hall, G. S. (1923) Life and confessions of a psychologist. D. Appleton. [MTG]Google Scholar
Hamilton, W. D. (1964) The genetical theory of social behavior. Journal of Theoretical Biology 7:1–52. [taMEL, SBP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hausfater, G. (1973) Dominance and reproduction in baboons (Papiocyncephalis), a quantitative analysis. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago. [DGF]Google Scholar
Hay, D. F. (1980) Multiple functions of proximity-seeking in infancy. Child Development 51:636–45. [DFH]Google Scholar
Hayashi, H. (1972) The development of the smile in infancy. Japanese Journal of Child Psychiatry 13:317–22. [JKK]Google Scholar
Hazen, N. L. & Durrett, M. E. (1982) Relationship of security of attachment to exploration and cognitive mapping abilities in 2-year-olds. Developmental Psychology 18:751–59. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heavens, R. Jr, & Ciechetti, D. V. (1978) A computer program for calculating rater agreement and bias statistics using contingency table input. Proceedings of the American Statistical Association (Statistical Computing Section) 21:366–70. [DVC]Google Scholar
Hebb, D. O. (1946) On the nature of fear. Psychological Review 53:259–76. [RTB]Google Scholar
Hinde, R. A. (1982) Attachment: Some conceptual and biological issues. In: The place of attachment in human behavior, ed. Stevenson-Hinde, J. & Parkes, C. Murray. Basic Books. [taMEL, EAS]Google Scholar
Hoffman, H. S. & DePaulo, P. (1977) Behavioral control by an imprinting stimulus. American Scientist 65:58–66. [SBP]Google ScholarPubMed
Hoffman, H. S. & Ratner, A. M. (1973) A reinforcement model of imprinting: Implications for socialization in monkeys and man. Psychological Review 80:527–44. [SBP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hull, C. L. (1943) Principles of behavior. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [JCM]Google Scholar
Jacobson, J. L., Wille, D. E., Tianen, R. L. & Aytch, D. M. (1983) The influence of infant-mother attachment on toddler sociability with peers. Paper presented to the Society for Research in Child Development, Detroit. [rMEL]Google Scholar
Joffe, L. (1981) The quality of mother-infant attachment and its relationship to compliance with maternal commands and prohibitions. Paper presented to the Society for Research in Child Development, Boston. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Johnson, H. M. (1954) On verifying hypotheses by verifying their implicates. American Journal of Psychology 67:723–27. [JCM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaila, E. (1932) Die Reaktion des Saeuglings auf das menschliche Gesicht. Annales Universitatis, fennicae, Aboensis, Series B, 17:1–114. [JKK]Google Scholar
Kazdin, A. E. & Tuma, A. H., eds. (1982) Single-case research designs. Jossey-Bass. [VHD]Google Scholar
Konner, M. (1977) Evolution of human behavior development. In: Culture ana infancy: Variations in human experience, ed. Leiderman, P. H.Tulkin, S. & A. Rosenfeld. Academic Press. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Kovach, M. E. & Kovach, J. K. (1983a) Reciprocal processes of early attachment: I. Maternal behavior and infant smile. In preparation. [JKK]Google Scholar
Kovach, M. E. & Kovach, J. K. (1983b) Reciprocal processes of early attachment: II. Maternal attitude and infant smile. In preparation. [JKK]Google Scholar
Lahey, M. A., Downey, R. G. & Saal, F. E. (1983) Intraclass correlations: There's more there than meets the eye. Psychological Bulletin 93:586–95. [DVC]Google Scholar
L'aillier, L. (1961) Smiling as a result of aural stimuli. Doctoral dissertation, University of Montreal. [JKK]Google Scholar
Lamb, M. E. (1981a) Developing trust and perceived effectance in infancy. In: Advances in infancy research, vol. 1, ed. Lipsitt, L. P.. Ablex. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Lamb, M. E. (1981b) The development of social expectations in the first year of life. In: Infant social cognition: Empirical and theoretical considerations, ed. Lamb, M. E. & Sherro, L. R.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [tarMEL]Google Scholar
Lamb, M. E. (1982a) Individual differences in infant sociability: Their origins and implications for cognitive development. In: Advances in child development and behavior, vol. 16, ed. Reese, H. W. & Lipsitt, L. P.. Academic Press. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Lamb, M. E. (1982b) On the familial origins of personality and social style. In: The family as a learning environment, ed. Laosa, L. & Sigel, I.. Plenum Press. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Lamb, M. E. & Easterbrooks, M. A. (1981) Individual differences in parental sensitivity: Origins, components, and consequences. In: Infant-social cognition: Empirical and theoretical considerations, ed. Lamb, M. E. & Sherrod, L. R.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [rMEL]Google Scholar
Lamb, M. E., Gaensbauer, T. J., Malkin, C. M. & Shultz, L. (in preparation) The effects of child abuse and neglect on security of infant-adult attachment. [tarMEL]Google Scholar
Lamb, M. E., Hwang, C. P., Frodi, A. & Frodi, M. (1982) Security of mother- and father-infant attachment and its relation to sociability with strangers in traditional and non-traditional Swedish families. Infant Behavior and Development 5:355–67. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Landis, J. R., Kemp, P. L., Stanish, W. M. & Koch, G. G. (1978) RHOCAT: A computer program for estimating variance components and reliability coefficients for categorical data. Paper presented at a meeting of the American Statistical Association in San Diego, Calif. [DVC]Google Scholar
Landis, J. R. & Koch, G. G. (1977) The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics 33:159–74. [DVC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lawlis, G. F. & Lu, E. (1972) Judgment of counseling process: Reliability, agreement, and error. Psychological Bulletin 78:17–20. [DVC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, M., Feiring, C, McGuffog, C. & Jaskir, J. (1984) Predicting psychopathology in six year olds from early social relations. Child Development 55, in press. [SF]Google ScholarPubMed
Lieberman, A. F. (1977) Preschoolers’ competence with a peer: Relations with attachment and peer experience. Child Development 48:1277–87. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Londerville, S. & Main, M. (1981) Security of attachment, compliance, and maternal training methods in the second year of life. Developmental Psychology 17:289–99. [tar MEL]Google Scholar
Lumsden, C. J. & Wilson, E. O. (1981) Genes, mind and culture. Harvard University Press. [SBP]Google Scholar
Lumsden, C. J. & Wilson, E. O. (1982) Précis of Genes, mind, and culture. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 5:1–38. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCall, R. B. (1977) Challenges to a science of developmental psychology. Child Development 48:333–44. [SC, rMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacCorquodale, K. & Meehl, P. E. (1948) On a distinction between hypothetical constructs and intervening variables. Psychological Review 55:95–107. [JCM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Main, M. (1973) Exploration, play and cognitive functioning as related to child-mother attachment. Ph.D. dissertation, Johns Hopkins University. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Main, M. (1981) Avoidance in the service of attachment: A working paper. In: Behavioral development: The Bielefeld interdisciplinary project, ed. Immelmann, K.Barlow, G.Main, M. & Petrinovich, L.. Cambridge University Press. [tarMEL]Google Scholar
Main, M. B. & Stadtman, J. (1981) Infant response to rejection of physical contact by the mother. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry 20:292–307. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Main, M. B., Tomasini, L. & Tolan, W. (1979) Differences among mothers of infants judged to differ in security. Developmental Psychology 15:472–73. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Main, M. B. & Weston, D. R. (1981) Security of attachment to mother and father: Related to conflict behavior and the readiness to establish new relationships. Child Development 52:932–40. [RTB, taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Main, M. B. & Weston, D. R. (1982) Avoidance of the attachment figure in infancy: Descriptions and interpretations. In: The place of attachment in human infancy, ed. Stevenson-Hinde, J. & Parkes, C. Murray. Basic Books. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Maslin, C. A. & Bates, J. E. (1982) Anxious attachment as a predictor of disharmony in the mother-toddler relationship. Paper presented at the International Conference on Infant Studies, Austin, Tex. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Masters, J. C. (1978) Implicit assumptions regarding the singularity of attachment: A note on the validity and heuristic value of a mega-construct. Behavioraland Brain Sciences 1:452–53. [JCM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masters, J. C. & Wellman, H. M. (1974) Human infant attachment: A procedural critique. Psychological Bulletin 81:213–37. [DFH, taMEL, JCM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matas, L., Arend, R. A. & Sroufe, L. A. (1978) Continuity of adaptation in the second year: The relationship between quality of attachment and later competence. Child Development 49:547–56. [SF, tarMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mead, M. (1928) Coming of age in Samoa. Morrow. [JKK]Google Scholar
Mischel, W. (1968) Personality and assessment. Wiley. [RIB, DFH, CJM]Google Scholar
Mischel, W. & Peake, P. K. (1983) Analyzing the construction of consistency in personality. In Personality – current theory and research, ed. Page, M. M.. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 1982. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. [RTB]Google Scholar
Miyake, K., Chen, S-J., Ujüe, T., Tajima, N., Satoh, K. & Takahashi, K. (1981–1982) Infant's temperamental disposition, mother's mode of interaction, quality of attachment, and infant's receptivity to socialization-interim progress report (1981–82). Research and Clinical Center of Child Development, annual report. Faculty of Education, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan. [rMEL]Google Scholar
Murphy, G. (1947) Personality: A biosocial approach to origins and structure. Harper. [EAS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, L. B. (1964) Some aspects of the first relationship. International Journal of Psychoanalysis 45:31–43. [DFH]Google ScholarPubMed
Nesselroade, J. & Baltes, P., eds. (1979) Longitudinal research in the study of behavior and development. Academic Press. [rMEL]Google Scholar
Novak, M. A. & Harlow, H. F. (1975) Social recovery of monkeys isolated for the first years of life. Developmental Psychology 11:453–65. [PHK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Page, M. M., ed. (1983) Personality – current theory and research. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 1982. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. [RTB]Google Scholar
Parker, G. A. & MacNair, M. R. (1979) Models of parent-offspring conflict IV. Suppression: Evolutionary retaliation by the parent. Animal Behavior 27:1210–35. [rMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pastor, D. L. (1980) The quality of mother-infant attachment and its relationship to toddlers’ initial sociability with peers. Paper presented at the International Conference on Infant Studies, New Haven. [tarMEL]Google Scholar
Pastor, D. L. (1981) The quality of mother-infant attachment and its relationship to toddlers’ initial sociability with peers. Developmental Psychology 17:326–35. [DVC, SF, tarMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pastor, D., Vaughn, B., Dodds, M. & Egeland, B. (1981) The effect of different family patterns on the quality of mother-infant attachment. Paper presented to the Society for Research in Child Development, Boston. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Pentz, T. (1975) Facilitation of language acquisition: The role of the mother. Ph.D. dissertation, Johns Hopkins University. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Petrovich, S. B. (1978a) Adaptation and evolution of behavior. In: Dimensions of behavior, ed. Balis, G. U.Wurmser, L.McDaniel, E. & Grenell, R. G.. Butterworth. [SBP]Google Scholar
Petrovich, S. B. (1978b) Extrapolations from ethological studies. In: Dimensions of behavior, ed. Balis, G. U.Wurmser, L.McDaniel, E. & Grenell, R. G.. Butterworth. [SBP]Google Scholar
Plotkin, H. C. & Odling-Smee, F. J. (1981) A multiple-level model of evolution and its implications for sociobiology. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 4:225–68. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rajecki, D. W., Lamb, M. E. & Obmascher, P. (1978) Toward a general theory of infantile attachment: A comparative review of aspects of the social bond. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1:417–64. [taMEL, JCM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rheingold, H. L. & Eckerman, C. O. (1973) Fear of the stranger: A critical examination. In: Advances in child development and behavior, ed. Reese, H. W.. Academic Press. [RTB]Google Scholar
Riedl, R. (1980) Biologie der Erkennlnis. Die stammesgeschichtlichen Grundlagen der Vernunft (Biology of knowledge, phylogenetic bases of reason). Parey. [KEG]Google Scholar
Rosen, K. S. & Cicchetti, D. (1983) The relationship between affect and cognition in maltreated infants: Quality of attachment and the development of self-recognition. Paper presented to the Society for Research in Child Development, Detroit. [rMEL]Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K. & Derryberry, D. (1981) Development of individual differences in temperament. In: Advances in developmental psychology vol. 1, ed. Lamb, M. E. & Brown, A. L.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [SF]Google Scholar
Rutter, M. (1979) Maternal deprivation, 1972–1978: New findings, new concepts, new approaches. Child Development 50:283–305. [EAS]Google Scholar
Rutter, M. (1981) Maternal deprication reassessed. 2d ed.Penguin Books. [SC]Google Scholar
Sagi, A., Lamb, M. E., Lewkowicz, K. S., Shoham, R., Dvir, R. & Estes, D. (in press) Security of infant-mother, father, and -metapelet attachments among kibbutz-reared Israeli children. In Growing points in attachment theory and research, ed. Bretherton, I. & Waters, E.. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development. [tarMEL]Google Scholar
Salzen, E. A. (1968) The application of imprinting. Science and Psychoanalysis 12:184–89. [EAS]Google Scholar
Salzen, E. A. (1978) Social attachment and a sense of security – A review. Social Science Information 17:555–627. [EAS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saunders, D. R. (1956) Moderator variables in prediction. Educational and Psychological Measurement 16:209–22. [RTB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaffer, H. R.(1971) The growth of sociability. Penguin Books. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Shrout, P. E. & Fleiss, J. L. (1979) Intraclass correlations: Uses in assessing rater reliability. Psychological Bulletin 86:420–28. [DVC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sluckin, W. (1965) Imprinting and early learning. Aldine. [DGF]Google Scholar
Spitz, R. A. (1945) Hospitalism: Psychoanalytic study of the child. International Universities Press. [JKK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spitz, R. A. & Wolf, K. M. (1946) The smiling response: A contribution to the ontogenesis of social relations. Genetic Psychology Monographs 34: 57–125. [JKK]Google Scholar
Sroufe, L. A. (1978) Attachment and the roots of competence. Human Nature 1(10):50–57. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Sroufe, L. A. (1979) The coherence of individual development. American Psychologist 34:834–41. [tarMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sroufe, L. A. (1983) Infant-caregiver attachment and patterns of adaptation in preschool: The roots of maladaptation and competence. Development and policy concerning children with special needs, ed. Perlmutter, M.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [KEG]Google Scholar
Sroufe, L. A. (1979) Individual patterns of adaptation from infancy to preschool. In: Minnesota symposium on child psychology, vol. 16, ed. Perlmutter, M.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [taMEL, JCM]Google Scholar
Sroufe, L. A. & Matas, L. (n.d.) Continuity of adaptation in the second year: The relationship between quality of attachment and later competent functioning. University of Minnesota. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Sroufe, L. A. & Rosenberg, D. (1982) Coherence of individual adaptation in lower class infants and toddlers. Paper presented at the International Conference on Infant Studies, Austin, Tex. [SF, taMEL]Google Scholar
Sroufe, L. A. & Waters, E. (1977) Attachment as an organizational construct. Child Development 48:1184–99. [DFH, taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sroufe, L. A. (1982) Issues of temperament and attachment. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 52:743–46. [SF, taMEL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stayton, D. J. & Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1973) Individual differences in infant responses to brief, everyday separations as related to other infant and maternal behaviors. Developmental Psychology 9:226–35. [SF, taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stayton, D., Hogan, R. & Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1971) Infant obedience and maternal behavior: The origins of socialization reconsidered. Child Development 42:1057–69. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stearns, S. C. (1976) Life-history tactics: A review of the ideas. Quarterly Review of Biology 51:3–47. [tarMEL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stearns, S. C. (1977) The evolution of life-history traits: A critique of the theory and a review of the data. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 8:145–71. [tarMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Symons, D. (1980) Multiple book review of The evolution of human sexuality. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3:171–214. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Thoman, E. B. (1981) Early communication as the prelude to later adaptive behaviors. In: Psychosocial influences in retarded performance, ed. Begab, M. J.Haywood, H. C. & Garber, H. L.. University Park Press. [VHD]Google Scholar
Thoman, E. B., Acebo, C. & Becker, P. T. (1983) Infant crying and stability in the mother-infant relationship: A systems analysis. Child Development 54:653–59. [VHD]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomas, A. & Chess, S. (1980) The dynamics of psychological development. Bruner/Mazel. [CJM]Google Scholar
Thomas, A., Chess, S. & Birch, H. G. (1968) Temperament and behavior disorders in children. New York University Press. [CJM]Google Scholar
Thompson, J. (1941) Development of facial expression of emotion in blind and seeing children. Archives of psychology, ed. .Woodworth, R. S. Columbia University Press. [JKK]Google Scholar
Thompson, R. A. & Lamb, M. E. (1983a) Individual differences in dimensions of socioemotional development in infancy. In: Emotion: theory, research, and experience, vol. 2, Emotions in early development, ed. Plutchik, R. & Kellerman, H.. Academic Press. [rMEL]Google Scholar
Thompson, R. A. & Lamb, M. E. (1983b) Infants, mothers, families, and strangers. In: Beyond the dyad, ed. Lewis, M. & Rosenblum, L. A.. Plenum Press. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Thompson, R. A. & Lamb, M. E. (1983c) Security of attachment and stranger sociability in infancy. Developmental Psychology 19:184–91. [SF, taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, R. A., Lamb, M. E. & Estes, D. (1982) Stability of infant-mother attachment and its relationship to changing life circumstances in an unselected middle class sample. Child Development 53:144–48. [SF, taMEL, EAS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, R. A., Lamb, M. E. & Estes, D. (1983) Harmonizing discordant notes: A reply to Waters. Child Development 54:521–24. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tolan, W. J. & Tomasini, L. (1977) Mothers of “secure” vs. “insecure” babies differ themselves nine months later. Paper presented to the Society for Research in Child Development, New Orleans. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Tomkins, S. S. (1963) Affect, imagery, consciousness, vol. 2, The negative affects. Springer. [EAS]Google Scholar
Tracy, R. L. & Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1981) Maternal affectionate behavior and infant-mother attachment patterns. Child Development 52:1341–43. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tracy, R. L., Farish, G. D. & Bretherton, I. (1980) Exploration as related to infant-mother attachment in one-year-olds. Paper presented at the International Conference on Infant Studies, New Haven. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1974) Parent-offspring conflict. American Zoologist 14:249–64. [taMEL, SBP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyrer, P., Alexander, M., Cicchetti, D. V., Cohen, M. & Remington, M. (1979) Reliability of a schedule for rating personality disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry 135:168–74. [DVC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van den Berghe, P. (1983) Human inbreeding avoidance: Culture in nature. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 6:91–123. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vaughn, B., Crichton, L. & Egeland, B. (1982) Individual differences in qualities of caregiving during the first six months of life: Antecedents in maternal and infant behavior during the newborn period. Infant Behavior and Development 5:77–95. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vaughn, B., Egeland, B., Sroufe, L. A. & Waters, E. (1979) Individual differences in infant-mother attachment at twelve and eighteen months: Stability and change in families under stress. Child Development 50:971–75. [SF, taMEL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vaughn, B., Gove, F. & Egeland, B. (1980) The relationship between out-of-home care and the quality of infant-mother attachment in an economically disadvantaged sample. Child Development 51:1203–14. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Vaughn, B., Taraldson, B., Crichton, L. & Egeland, B. (1980) Relationships between neonatal behavioral organization and infant behavior during the first year of life. Infant Behavior and Development 3:47–66. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waters, E. (1977) The stability of individual differences in infant-mother attachment. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Minnesota. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Waters, E. (1978) The reliability and stability of individual differences in infant-mother attachment. Child Development 49:483–94. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waters, E. (1983) The stability of individual differences in infant attachment: Comments on the Thompson, Lamb, and Estes contribution. Child Development 54:516–20. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waters, E. & Deane, D. (1982) Infant-mother attachment: Theories, models, recent data, and some tasks for comparative developmental analysis. In: Parenting: Its causes and consequences, ed. Hoffman, L. W.Gandelman, R. & Schiffman, H. R.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [taMEL]Google Scholar
Waters, E., Hay, D. F. & Richters, J. III. (in press) Infant-parent attachment and the origins of prosocial and antisocial behavior. In: The development of prosocial and antisocial behavior, ed. Olweus, D.Block, J. & Radke-Yarrow, M.. Academic Press. [DFH]Google Scholar
Waters, E. & Sroufe, L. A. (1983) A road careened into the woods: Comments on Dr. Morrison's commentary. Developmental Review 3:108–14. [DFH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waters, E., Vaughn, B. & Egeland, B. (1980) Individual differences in infant-mother attachment relationships at age one: Antecedents in neonatal behavior in an urban, economically disadvantaged sample. Child Development 51:208–16. [taMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waters, E., Wippman, J. & Sroufe, L. A. (1979) Attachment, positive affect, and competence in the peer group: Two studies in construct validation. Child Development 50:821–29. [tarMEL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weisz, J. R. (1978) Transcontextual validity in developmental research. Child Development 49:1–12. [rMEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, G. C. (1966) Adaptation and natural selection: A critique of some current evolutionary thought. Princeton University Press. [DFH]Google Scholar
Williams, G. C. (1975) Sex and evolution. Princeton University Press. [DGF]Google ScholarPubMed
Wolff, P. H. (1963) Observations on the early development of smiling. In: Determinants of infant behaviour, vol. 2, ed. Foss, B. M.. Wiley. [JKK]Google Scholar
Wolff, P. H. (1966) The causes, controls, and organization of behavior in the newborn. Psychological Issues 5 (1), whole no. 17. [JKK]Google Scholar