Hostname: page-component-7f64f4797f-8cpv7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-11-04T15:04:05.253Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Social–ecological predictors of externalizing behavior trajectories in at-risk youth

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 May 2017

Caleb J. Figge ,
Cecilia Martinez-Torteya  and
Jessica E. Weeks
Caleb J. Figge*
Affiliation:
DePaul University
Cecilia Martinez-Torteya
Affiliation:
DePaul University
Jessica E. Weeks
Affiliation:
University of Utah
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Caleb J. Figge, Department of Psychology, DePaul University, 2219 North Kenmore Avenue, Chicago, IL 60614; E-mail: cfigge@depaul.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Extant research consistently links youth externalizing problems and later maladaptive outcomes, and these behaviors are particularly detrimental given their relative stability across development. Although an array of risk and protective factors for externalizing problems have been identified, few studies have examined factors reflecting the multiple social–ecological levels that influence child development and used them to predict longitudinal trajectories of externalizing problems. The current study examined externalizing behavior trajectories in a sample of 1,094 at-risk youth (539 boys, 555 girls) from the Longitudinal Studies in Child Abuse and Neglect multisite longitudinal study of child maltreatment. Normed Child Behavior Checklist externalizing scores were used to estimate group trajectories via growth-based trajectory modeling at ages 10, 12, 14, and 16 using the SAS PROC TRAJ procedure. Model fit was assessed using the Bayes information criterion and the Akaike information criterion statistics. Analyses revealed optimal fit for five distinct behavioral trajectories: low stable, mid-increasing, mid-decreasing, medium high, and high stable. Multinomial logistic regressions revealed that a combination of risk and protective factors at individual, family, school, and neighborhood levels contribute to distinct trajectories of externalizing problems over time. Predictors of low and decreasing trajectories can inform interventions aimed at addressing externalizing problems among high-risk adolescents.

Information

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 30 , Issue 1 , February 2018 , pp. 255 - 266
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

Footnotes

The authors appreciate data access drawn from the Longitudinal Studies in Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN) study.

References

Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Manual for the ASEBA School-Age Forms & Profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.Google Scholar
Ang, R., & Hughes, J. (2001). Differential benefits of skills training with antisocial youth based on group composition: A meta-analytic investigation. School Psychology Review, 31, 164–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arnett, J. J. (1999). Adolescent storm and stress, reconsidered. American Psychologist, 54, 317.Google Scholar
Bagner, D. M., & Eyberg, S. M. (2003). Father involvement in parent training: When does it matter? Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 599–605.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baillargeon, R. H., Zoccolillo, M., Keenan, K., Cote, S., Perusse, D., Wu, H-X., … Tremblay, R. E. (2007). Gender differences in physical aggression: A prospective population-based survey of children before and after 2 years of age. Developmental Psychology, 43, 13–26. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.1.13 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrera, M., Prelow, H. M., Dumka, L. E., Gonzales, N. A., Knight, G. P., Michaels, M. L., … Tein, J. (2002). Pathways from family economic conditions to adolescents' distress: Supportive parenting, stressors outside the family, and deviant peers. Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 135–152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bates, J. E., Freeland, C. A., & Lounsbury, M. L. (1979). Measurement of infant difficultness. Child Development, 50, 794–803.Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., & Tice, D. M. (1998). Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1252.Google Scholar
Beyers, J. M., Bates, J. E., Pettit, G. S., & Dodge, K. A. (2003). Neighborhood structure, parenting processes, and the development of youths' externalizing behaviors: A multilevel analysis. American Journal of Community Psychology, 31, 35–53.Google Scholar
Blair, K. A., Denham, S. A., Kochanoff, A., & Whipple, B. (2004). Playing it cool: Temperament, emotion regulation, and social behavior in preschoolers. Journal of School Psychology, 42, 419–443.Google Scholar
Bongers, I. L., Koot, H. M., van der Ende, J., & Verhulst, F. C. (2004). Developmental trajectories of externalizing behaviors in childhood and adolescence. Child Development, 75, 1523–1537.Google Scholar
Borduin, C. M., & Henggeler, S. W. (1990). A multisystemic approach to the treatment of serious delinquent behavior. In McMahon, R. J. & Peters, R. D. (Eds.), Behavior disorders of adolescence: Research, intervention, and policy in clinical and school settings (pp. 63–80). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Bowen, N. K., & Bowen, G. L. (1999). Effects of crime and violence in neighborhoods and schools on the school behavior and performance of adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 14, 319–342.Google Scholar
Brady, S. S., Winston, W., & Gockley, S. E. (2014). Stress-related externalizing behavior among African American youth: How could policy and practice transform risk into resilience? Journal of Social Issues, 70, 315–341.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Briggs-Gowan, M. J., Carter, A. S., & Schwab-Stone, M. (1996). Discrepancies among mother, child, and teacher reports: Examining the contributions of maternal depression and anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 749–765. doi:10.1007/BF01664738 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Broidy, L. M., Nagin, D. S., Tremblay, R. E., Bates, J. E., Brame, B., Dodge, K. A., … Lynam, D. R. (2003). Developmental trajectories of childhood disruptive behaviors and adolescent delinquency: A six-site, cross-national study. Developmental Psychology, 39, 222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, G. L., McBride, B. A., Shin, N., & Bost, K. K. (2007). Parenting predictors of father-child attachment security: Interactive effects of father involvement and fathering quality. Fathering, 5, 197.Google Scholar
Cabrera, N., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Bradley, R. H., Hofferth, S., & Lamb, M. E. (2000). Fatherhood in the twenty-first century. Child Development, 71, 127–136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Capaldi, D. M., Dishion, T. J., Stoolmiller, M., & Yoerger, K. (2001). Aggression toward female partners by at-risk young men: The contribution of male adolescent friendships. Developmental Psychology, 37, 61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlson, B. E. (2000). Children exposed to intimate partner violence research findings and implications for intervention. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 1, 321–342.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control Violence Prevention. (2007). The social-ecological model: A framework for prevention. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/ncipc/dvp/social-ecological-model_dvp.htm Google Scholar
Chaffin, M., Silovsky, J. F., Funderburk, B., Valle, L. A., Brestan, E. V., Balachova, T., … Bonner, B. L. (2004). Parent-child interaction therapy with physically abusive parents: Efficacy for reducing future abuse reports. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 500.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chung, I. J., Hawkins, J. D., Gilchrist, L. D., Hill, K. G., & Nagin, D. S. (2002). Identifying and predicting offending trajectory patterns among poor children. Social Service Review, 39, 663–685.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D. (1993). Developmental psychopathology: Reactions, reflections, projections. Developmental Review, 13, 471–502.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2002). A developmental psychopathology perspective on adolescence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 6.Google Scholar
Crapanzano, A. M., Frick, P. J., & Terranova, A. M. (2010). Patterns of physical and relational aggression in a school-based sample of boys and girls. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 433–445.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeKlyen, M., Speltz, M. L., & Greenberg, M. T. (1998). Fathering and early onset conduct problems: Positive and negative parenting, father–son attachment, and the marital context. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 1, 3–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeLisi, M., & Vaughn, M. G. (2016). Presaging problem behavior: The mutuality of child temperament, parenting, and family environments from gestation to age three. In Beaver, K. M. & Walsh, A. (Eds.), The Ashgate research companion to biosocial theories of crime (pp. 291–304). Burlington, VT: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Devine, J., & Cohen, J. (2007) Making your school safe: Strategies to protect children and promote learning. New York: Teachers College Press.Google Scholar
Dodge, K. A., & Somberg, D. R. (1987). Hostile attributional biases among aggressive boys are exacerbated under conditions of threats to the self. Child Development, 58, 213–224.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubowitz, H., Black, M. M., Cox, C. E., Kerr, M. A., Litrownik, A. J., Radhakrishna, A., … Runyan, D. K. (2001). Father involvement and children's functioning at age 6 years: A multisite study. Child Maltreatment, 6, 300–309.Google Scholar
Easterbrooks, M. A., Raskin, M., & McBrian, S. F. (2014). Father involvement and toddlers’ behavior regulation: Evidence from a high social risk sample. Fathering, 12, 71–93.Google Scholar
Egeland, B., Yates, T., Appleyard, K., & Van Dulmen, M. (2002). The long-term consequences of maltreatment in the early years: A developmental pathway model to antisocial behavior. Children's Services: Social Policy, Research, and Practice, 5, 249–260.Google Scholar
Enders, C. K. (2001). The performance of the full information maximum likelihood estimator in multiple regression models with missing data. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 61, 713–740.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
English, D. J., & Longscan Investigators. (1997). Modified Maltreatment Classification System (MMCS). Retrieved from http://www.iprc.unc.edu/longscan Google Scholar
Ensminger, M. E., Lamkin, R. P., & Jacobson, N. (1996). School leaving: A longitudinal perspective including neighborhood effects. Child Development, 67, 2400–2416.Google Scholar
Eyberg, S. (1988). Parent-child interaction therapy: Integration of traditional and behavioral concerns. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 10, 33–46.Google Scholar
Flouri, E., & Buchanan, A. (2003). The role of father involvement in children's later mental health. Journal of Adolescence, 26, 63–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Font, S. A., & Berger, L. M. (2015). Child maltreatment and children's developmental trajectories in early to middle childhood. Child Development, 86, 536–556.Google Scholar
Fosco, G. M., DeBoard, R. L., & Grych, J. H. (2007). Making sense of family violence: Implications of children's appraisals of interparental aggression for their short- and long-term functioning. European Psychologist, 12, 6–16.Google Scholar
Gershoff, E. T., Lansford, J. E., Sexton, H. R., Davis-Kean, P., & Sameroff, A. J. (2012). Longitudinal links between spanking and children's externalizing behaviors in a national sample of White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian American families. Child Development, 83, 838–843.Google Scholar
Gorman-Smith, D., Henry, D. B., & Tolan, P. H. (2004). Exposure to community violence and violence perpetration: The protective effects of family functioning. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 439–449.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Graham-Bermann, S. A., Gruber, G., Howell, K. H., & Girz, L. (2009). Factors discriminating among profiles of resilience and psychopathology in children exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV). Child Abuse & Neglect, 33, 648–660. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.01.002 Google Scholar
Gregory, A., & Cornell, D. (2009). “Tolerating” adolescent needs: Moving beyond zero tolerance policies in high school. Theory Into Practice, 48, 106–113.Google Scholar
Gregory, A., Skiba, R. J., & Noguera, P. A. (2010). The achievement gap and the discipline gap: Two sides of the same coin? Educational Researcher, 39, 59–68.Google Scholar
Gresham, F. M., Cook, C. R., Crews, S. D., & Kern, L. (2004). Social skills training for children and youth with emotional and behavioral disorders: Validity considerations and future directions. Behavioral Disorders, 30, 32–46.Google Scholar
Grych, J. H., Raynor, S. R., & Fosco, G. M. (2004). Family processes that shape the impact of interparental conflict on adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 649–665.Google Scholar
Holt, S. B., Buckley, H., & Whelan, S. (2008). The impact of exposure to domestic violence on children and young people: A review of the literature. Child Abuse and Neglect, 32, 797–810.Google Scholar
Horner, M. S., Reynolds, M., Braxter, B., Kirisci, L., & Tarter, R. E. (2015). Temperament disturbances measured in infancy progress to substance use disorder 20 years later. Personality and Individual Differences, 82, 96–101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jeynes, W. H. (2015). The relationship between father involvement and student academic achievement. Urban Education, 50, 387–423.Google Scholar
Jonson-Reid, M. (2002). Exploring the relationship between child welfare intervention and juvenile corrections involvement. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 72, 559–576.Google Scholar
Kennedy, M., Betts, L., Dunn, T., Sonuga-Barke, E., & Underwood, J. (2015). Applying Pleck's model of paternal involvement to the study of preschool attachment quality: A proof of concept study. Early Child Development and Care, 185, 601–613.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kobak, R., Ferenz-Gillies, R., Everhart, E., & Seabrook, L. (1994). Maternal attachment strategies and emotion regulation with adolescent offspring. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 4, 553–566.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Korhonen, M., Luoma, I., Salmelin, R. K., Helminen, M., Kaltiala-Heino, R., & Tamminen, T. (2014). The trajectories of children's internalizing and externalizing problems, social competence and adolescent self-reported problems in a Finnish normal population sample. School Psychology International, 35, 561–579.Google Scholar
Laird, R. D., Jordan, K. Y., Dodge, K. A., Petit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (2001). Peer rejection in childhood, involvement with antisocial peers in early adolescence, and the development of externalizing behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 337–354.Google Scholar
Lam, C. B., McHale, S. M., & Crouter, A. C. (2014). Time with peers from middle childhood to late adolescence: Developmental course and adjustment correlates. Child Development, 85, 1677–1693.Google Scholar
Latendresse, S. J., Bates, J. E., Goodnight, J. A., Lansford, J. E., Budde, J. P., Goate, A., … Dick, D. M. (2011). Differential susceptibility to adolescent externalizing trajectories: Examining the interplay between CHRM2 and peer group antisocial behavior. Child Development, 82, 1797–1814.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leventhal, T., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2000). The neighborhoods they live in: The effects of neighborhood residence on child and adolescent outcomes. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 309.Google Scholar
Leventhal, T., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2003). Children and youth in neighborhood contexts. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12, 27–31.Google Scholar
Lieberman, A. F., Ippen, C. G., & Van Horn, P. (2006). Child-parent psychotherapy: 6-month follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 913–918.Google Scholar
Lynch, M., & Cicchetti, D. (1998). An ecological-transactional analysis of children and contexts: The longitudinal interplay among child maltreatment, community violence, and children's symptomatology. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 235–257.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lyons-Ruth, K., & Jacobvitz, D. (1999). Attachment disorganization: Unresolved loss, relational violence, and lapses in behavioral and attentional strategies (pp. 520–554). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Madu, S. N., Idemudia, S. E., & Jegede, A. S. (2003). Some perceived parental undesirable behaviours predicting child sexual, physical and emotional abuse: A study among a sample of university students in South Africa. Journal of Social Sciences, 7, 111–119.Google Scholar
Manly, J. T., Oshri, A., Lynch, M., Herzog, M., & Wortel, S. (2013). Child neglect and the development of externalizing behavior problems associations with maternal drug dependence and neighborhood crime. Child Maltreatment, 18, 17–29.Google Scholar
Margolin, G., & Gordis, E. B. (2000). The effects of family and community violence on children. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 445–479.Google Scholar
Marsee, M. A., & Frick, P. J. (2007). Exploring the cognitive and emotional correlates to proactive and reactive aggression in a sample of detained girls. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 969–981.Google Scholar
Martinez-Torteya, C., Bogat, A., von Eye, A., & Levendosky, A. A. (2009). Resilience among children exposed to domestic violence: The role of risk and protective factors. Child Development, 80, 562–577.Google Scholar
Martinez-Torteya, C., Miller-Graff, L. E., Howell, K. H., & Figge, C. (2015). Profiles of adaptation among child victims of suspected maltreatment. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology. Advance online publication.Google Scholar
McDowell, D. J., Parke, R. D., & Wang, S. J. (2003). Differences between mothers' and fathers' advice-giving style and content: Relations with social competence and psychological functioning in middle childhood. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 49, 55–76.Google Scholar
Metsäpelto, R. L., Pakarinen, E., Kiuru, N., Poikkeus, A. M., Lerkkanen, M. K., & Nurmi, J. E. (2015). Developmental dynamics between children's externalizing problems, task-avoidant behavior, and academic performance in early school years: A 4-year follow-up. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107, 246.Google Scholar
Miner, J. L., & Clarke-Stewart, K. A. (2008). Trajectories of externalizing behavior from age 2 to age 9: Relations with gender, temperament, ethnicity, parenting, and rater. Developmental Psychology, 44, 771.Google Scholar
Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674–701.Google Scholar
Moffitt, T. E. (2006). Life-course-persistent versus adolescence-limited antisocial behavior. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 3. Risk, disorder, and adaptation (2nd ed., pp. 570–598). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., Myers, S. S., & Robinson, L. R. (2007). The role of the family context in the development of emotion regulation. Social Development, 16, 361–388.Google Scholar
Nagin, D. S. (2005). Group-based modeling of development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Nagin, D. S., & Tremblay, R. E. (1999). Trajectories of boys' physical aggression, opposition, and hyperactivity on the path to physically violent and nonviolent juvenile delinquency. Child Development, 70, 1181–1196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Niolon, P. H., Kuperminc, G. P., & Allen, J. P. (2015). Autonomy and relatedness in mother–teen interactions as predictors of involvement in adolescent dating aggression. Psychology of Violence, 5, 133.Google Scholar
O'Keefe, M. (1997). Predictors of dating violence among high school students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 12, 546–568.Google Scholar
Osher, D., Bear, G. G., Sprague, J. R., & Doyle, W. (2010). How can we improve school discipline? Educational Researcher, 39, 48–58.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R., Reid, J. B., & Dishion, T. J. (1992). Antisocial boys: A social interactional approach. Eugene, OR: Castalia Press.Google Scholar
Pepler, D. J., Jiang, D., Craig, W. M., & Connolly, J. (2010). Developmental trajectories of girls’ and boys’ delinquency and associated problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 1033–1044.Google Scholar
Peterson, D., Esbensen, F., Taylor, T. J., & Freng, A. (2007). Youth violence in context: The roles of sex, race, and community in offending. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 5, 385–410. doi:10.1177/1541204006297369 Google Scholar
Plybon, L. E., & Kliewer, W. (2001). Neighborhood types and externalizing behavior in urban school-age children: Tests of direct, mediated, and moderated effects. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 10, 419–437.Google Scholar
Quamma, J. P., & Greenberg, M. T. (1994). Children's experience of life stress: The role of family social support and social problem-solving skills as protective factors. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 23, 295–305.Google Scholar
Reef, J., Diamantopoulou, S., van Meurs, I., Verhulst, F., & van der Ende, J. (2010). Predicting adult emotional and behavioral problems from externalizing problem trajectories in a 24-year longitudinal study. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 19, 577–585.Google Scholar
Richters, J. E., & Martinez, P. (1992). Things I Have Seen and Heard: A structured interview for assessing young children's violence exposure. Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Mental Health.Google Scholar
Roberts, A. L., McLaughlin, K. A., Conron, K. J., & Koenen, K. C. (2011). Adulthood stressors, history of childhood adversity, and risk of perpetration of intimate partner violence. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 40, 128–138.Google Scholar
Roberts, R. E., Alegría, M., Roberts, C. R., & Chen, I. G. (2005). Mental health problems of adolescents as reported by their caregivers. Journal of Behavioral Health Services and Research, 32, 1–13.Google Scholar
Schaeffer, C. M., & Borduin, C. M. (2005). Long-term follow-up to a randomized clinical trial of multisystemic therapy with serious and violent juvenile offenders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 445–453.Google Scholar
Simons, L. G., Simons, R. L., Conger, R. D., & Brody, G. H. (2004). Collective socialization and child conduct problems: A multilevel analysis with an African American sample. Youth & Society, 35, 267–292.Google Scholar
Skalická, V., Stenseng, F., & Wichstrøm, L. (2015). Reciprocal relations between student–teacher conflict, children's social skills and externalizing behavior: A three-wave longitudinal study from preschool to third grade. International Journal of Behavioral Development. Advance online publication.Google Scholar
Smokowski, P. R., Evans, C. B. R., Cotter, K. L., & Webber, K. C. (2013). Ethnic identity and mental health in American Indian youth: Examining mediation pathways through self-esteem and future optimism. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43, 343–355. doi:10.1007/s10964-013-9992-7 Google Scholar
Sousa, C., Herrenkohl, T. I., Moylan, C. A., Tajima, E. A., Klika, J. B., Herrenkohl, R. C., & Russo, M. J. (2011). Longitudinal study on the effects of child abuse and children's exposure to domestic violence, parent-child attachments, and antisocial behavior in adolescence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 111–136.Google Scholar
Sparrow, S. S., Carter, A. S., & Cicchetti, D. V. (1993). Vineland screener: Overview reliability, validity, administration, and scoring. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Stenseng, F., Belsky, J., Skalicka, V., & Wichstrøm, L. (2014). Preschool social exclusion, aggression, and cooperation: A longitudinal evaluation of the need-to-belong and the social-reconnection hypotheses. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40, 1637–1647.Google Scholar
Straus, M. (1979). Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: The conflict tactics (CT) scales. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 41, 75–88.Google Scholar
Tabone, J. K., Guterman, N. B., Litrownik, A. J., Dubowitz, H., Isbell, P., English, D. J., … Thompson, R. (2011). Developmental trajectories of behavior problems among children who have experienced maltreatment: Heterogeneity during early childhood and ecological predictors. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 19, 204–216.Google Scholar
Tackett, J. L., Martel, M. M., & Kushner, S. C. (2012). Temperament, externalizing disorders, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. In Marcel, Z. & Shiner, R. L. (Eds.), Handbook of temperament (pp. 562–580). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Thapa, A., Cohen, J., Guffey, S., & Higgins-D'Alessandro, A. (2013). A review of school climate research. Review of Educational Research, 83, 357–385.Google Scholar
US Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2007). The Condition of Education 1997, NCES 97-388, Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
van der Put, C. E., Lanctôt, N., De Ruiter, C., & Van Vugt, E. (2015). Child maltreatment among boy and girl probationers: Does type of maltreatment make a difference in offending behavior and psychosocial problems? Child Abuse and Neglect, 46, 142–151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Zeijl, J., Mesman, J., Stolk, M. N., Alink, L. R., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., … Koot, H. M. (2007). Differential susceptibility to discipline: The moderating effect of child temperament on the association between maternal discipline and early childhood externalizing problems. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 626.Google Scholar
Walters, G. D. (2014). Pathways to early delinquency: Exploring the individual and collective contributions of difficult temperament, low maternal involvement, and externalizing behavior. Journal of Criminal Justice, 42, 321–326.Google Scholar
Widom, C. S. (2014). Long-term consequences of child maltreatment. In Corbin, J. E. & Krugman, R. D. (Eds.), Handbook of child maltreatment (pp. 225–247). Amsterdam: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolfe, D. A., Crooks, C. C., Chiodo, D., & Jaffe, P. (2009). Child maltreatment, bullying, gender-based harassment, and adolescent dating violence: Making the connections. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 21–24.Google Scholar
Yongman, M. W., Kindlon, D., & Earls, F. (1995). Father involvement and cognitive/behavioral outcomes of preterm infants. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 58–66.Google Scholar
Zimmerman, G. M., & Messner, S. F. (2010). Neighborhood context and the gender gap in adolescent violent crime. American Sociological Review, 75, 958–980. doi:10.1177/0003122410386688 Google Scholar