Hostname: page-component-5b777bbd6c-v47t2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-06-19T23:31:50.050Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Norm internalisation revisited: Norm contestation and the life of norms at the extreme of the norm cascade

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 October 2019

LUCRECIA GARCÍA IOMMI Open the ORCID record for LUCRECIA GARCÍA IOMMI [Opens in a new window]
LUCRECIA GARCÍA IOMMI*
Affiliation:
Fairfield University, 1073 North Benson Road, Fairfield, CT06824, USA
*
*Email: lgarciaiommi@fairfield.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract:

Finnemore and Sikkink’s norms life cycle model (NLCM) is a powerful heuristic device that continues to be a mandatory point of reference for theoretical and empirical scholarship on norm change. Yet the internalisation stage as conceptualised in the NLCM is problematic. Drawing from Wiener’s Theory of Contestation, this article proposes to reconceptualise the norm internalisation stage as the phase at the extreme of the norm cascade in which inherently contested norms simultaneously enjoy formal validity, social recognition, and cultural validation among stakeholders. Unlike Finnemore and Sikkink’s, this conceptualisation focuses solely on norm validity and does not assume ‘almost automatic’ compliance. While Finnemore and Sikkink emphasise habit and institutionalisation as mechanisms of internalisation, the proposed conceptualisation highlights the role of applicatory contestation under conditions of high contestedness. Furthermore, I argue that internalised norms continue to be contested. Finally, my conceptualisation explicitly incorporates norm regression as the fourth stage of the NLCM. Norms might regress because they become obsolete, they change, or they are replaced. To assess the descriptive power of the proposed conceptualisation vis-à-vis Finnemore and Sikkink’s, the article applies them to the analysis of the norm that prohibits torture.

Keywords

constructivisminternalisationnorm contestationnorms life cycle modelprohibition of torture
Type
Articles
Information
Global Constitutionalism , Volume 9 , Issue 1 , March 2020 , pp. 76 - 116
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Acharya, Amitav. 2004. ‘‘How Ideas Spread: Whose Norms Matter? Norm Localization and Institutional Change in Asian Regionalism.’’ International Organization 58(2):239–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Acharya, Amitav. 2013. “The R2P and Norm Diffusion: Towards a Framework of Norm Circulation.” Global Responsibility to Protect 5(4):466–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amnesty International. 2014. Torture in 2014. 30 years of Broken Promises, available at <https://www.amnestyusa.org/files/act400042014en.pdf>..>Google Scholar
Bailey, Jennifer. 2008. “Arrested Development: The Fight to End Commercial Whaling as a Case of Failed Norm Change.” European Journal of International Relations 14(2):289–318.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnes, Jamal. 2013. Why the Torture Taboo Matters. Doctoral dissertation, Murdoch University.Google Scholar
Barnes, Jamal. 2016. “The ‘War on Terror’ and the Battle for the Definition of Torture.” International Relations 30(1):102–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ben-Josef Hirsch, Michal and Dixon, Jennifer. 2019. “Conceptualizing Norm Strength.” Presentation, International Studies Association Annual Conference, San Francisco, CA.Google Scholar
Birdsall, Andrew. 2016. “But We Don’t Call It ‘Torture’! Norm Contestation during the US ‘War on Terror’.” International Politics 53(2):176–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bloomfield, Alan. 2016. “Norm Antipreneurs and Theorising Resistance to Normative Change.” Review of International Studies 42(2):310–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bob, Clifford. 2012. The Global Right Wing and the Clash of World Politics. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bower, Adam. 2016. Norms without the Great Powers: International Law and Changing Social Standards in World Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Bowker, David W. 2006. “Unwise Counsel: The War on Terrorism and the Criminal Mistreatment of Detainees in U.S. Custody.” In The Torture Debate in America, edited by Greenberg, Karen, 183–201. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bybee, Jay S. 2005 (2002a). “Status of the Taliban Forces under Article 4 of the Third Geneva Convention of 1949.” In The Torture Papers: The Road to Abu Ghraib, edited by Greenberg, Karen and Dratel, Joshua, 136–43. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bybee, Jay S. 2005 (2002b). “Standards of Conduct for Interrogation under 18 U.S.C. §§ 2340–2340A.” In The Torture Papers: The Road to Abu Ghraib, edited by Greenberg, Karen and Dratel, Joshua, 172–217. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Carpenter, Charli. 2007. “Studying Issue (Non)-Adoption in Transnational Advocacy Networks.” International Organization 61(3):643–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Checkel, Jeffrey T. 1997. “International Norms and Domestic Politics: Bridging the Rationalist–Constructivist Divide.” European Journal of International Relations 3(4):473–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Checkel, Jeffrey T. 2005. “International Institutions and Socialization in Europe: Introduction and Framework.” International Organization 59(4):801–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, Ann Marie. 2001. Diplomacy of Conscience: Amnesty International and Changing Human Rights Norms. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Cortell, Andrew and Davis, James. 2000. “Understanding the Domestic Impact of International Norms: A Research Agenda.” International Studies Review 2(1):65–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cournil, Christel. 2017. “The Inadequacy of International Refugee Law in Response to Environmental Migration.” In Research Handbook on Climate Change, Migration and the Law, edited by Mayer, Benoît and Crépeau, François, 85–107. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Creamer, Cossette D. and Simmons, Beth A.. 2015. “Ratification, Reporting, and Rights: Quality of Participation in the Convention against Torture.” Human Rights Quarterly 37(3):579–608.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, Sara, Kamradt-Scott, Adam and Rushton, Simon. 2015. Disease Diplomacy: International Norms and Global Health Security. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
De Vos, Christian M. 2007. “Mind the Gap: Purpose, Pain, and the Difference between Torture and Inhuman Treatment.” Human Rights Brief 14(2):2.Google Scholar
Deitelhoff, Nicole and Zimmermann, Lisbeth. 2013. “Things We Lost in the Fire: How Different Types of Contestation Affect the Validity of International Norms.” Working Papers 18, available at <https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:0168-ssoar-455201>.Google Scholar
Dunne, Tim. 2007. ‘“The Rules of the Game Are Changing’: Fundamental Human Rights in Crisis after 9/11.” International Politics 44(2-3):269–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Einolf, Christopher. 2007. “The Fall and Rise of Torture: A Comparative and Historical Analysis.” Sociological Theory 25(2):101–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Epstein, Charlotte. 2012. “Stop Telling Us How to Behave: Socialization or Infantilization?” International Studies Perspectives 13(2):135–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
European Court of Human Rights. 2018. “Secret Detention Sites”, available at <https://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/FS_Secret_detention_ENG.PDF>..>Google Scholar
Finnemore, Martha and Sikkink, Katherine. 1998. “International Norm Dynamics and Political Change.” International Organization 52(4):887–917.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisk, Kerstin and Ramos, Jennifer. 2014. “Actions Speak Louder Than Words: Preventive Self-Defense as a Cascading Norm.” International Studies Perspectives 15(2):163–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forsythe, David P. 2006. “United States Policy toward Enemy Detainees in the ‘War on Terrorism’.” Human Rights Quarterly 28(2):465–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forsythe, David P. 2011. “US Foreign Policy and Human Rights: Situating Obama.” Human Rights Quarterly 33(3):767–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foster, Michelle. 2007. International Refugee Law and Socio-Economic Rights: Refuge from Deprivation. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freeman, Marsha. 2009. ‘‘Reservations to CEDAW: An Analysis for UNICEF.’’ Policy and Practice, available at <https://www.unicef.org/gender/files/Reservations_to_CEDAW-an_Analysis_for_UNICEF.pdf>.Google Scholar
Global Slavery Index 2018, available at <https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/resources/downloads/>..>Google Scholar
Gonzalez Ocantos, Ezequiel. 2018. “Communicative Entrepreneurs: The Case of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights’ Dialogue with National Judges.” International Studies Quarterly 62(4):737–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hansen-Magnusson, Hannes, Vetterlein, Antje and Wiener, Antje. 2018. “The Problem of Non-compliance: Knowledge Gaps and Moments of Contestation in Global Governance.” Journal of International Relations and Development, available at <https://link.springer.com/article/10.1057%2Fs41268-018-0157-x>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haas, Ernst. 1990. When Knowledge Is Power: Three Models of Change in International Organizations. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Haas, Peter. 1992. “Introduction: Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination.” International Organization 46(1):1–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hadden, Jennifer and Jasny, Lorien. 2017. ‘‘The Power of Peers: How Transnational Advocacy Networks Shape NGO Strategies on Climate Change.’’ British Journal of Political Science 49(2):1–23.Google Scholar
Heller, Regina, Kahl, Martin and Pisoiu, Daniela. 2012. “The ‘Dark’ Side of Normative Argumentation – The Case of Counterterrorism Policy.” Global Constitutionalism 1(2):278–312.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodgson, Godfrey. 2005. “The US-European Torture Dispute: An Autopsy.” World Policy Journal 22(4):7–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoffmann, Matthew J. 2010. “Norms and Social Constructivism in International Relations.” The International Studies Encyclopedia 8:5410–26.Google Scholar
Hunt, Lynn. 2007. Inventing Human Rights: A History. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Co.Google Scholar
Jose, Betcy. 2016. “Bin Laden’s Targeted Killing and Emerging Norms.” Critical Studies on Terrorism 10(1):44–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kang, Sang June. 2018. International Norm Development: Cyclic Model of Norm Change and Self-Determination. Doctoral dissertation, São Paulo: Instituto de Relações Internacionais. <www.teses.usp.br/teses/disponiveis/101/101131/tde-06022019-113106/pt-br.php>.Google Scholar
Katzenstein, Peter. 1996. The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Keating, Vincent. 2014. “Contesting the International Illegitimacy of Torture: The Bush Administration’s Failure to Legitimate Its Preferences within International Society.” The British Journal of Politics and International Relations 16(1):1–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keck, M. E. and Sikkink, K. 1999. “Transnational Advocacy Networks in International and Regional Politics.” International Social Science Journal 51(159):89–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kenkel, Kai Michael and Stefan, Cristina G.. 2016. ‘‘Brazil and the Responsibility While Protecting Initiative: Norms and the Timing of Diplomatic Support.’’ Global Governance 22:41–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kesper-Biermann, Sylvia. 2018. Security, Transnational Law and Emotions. The History of the Transnational Anti-Torture Regime from the Enlightenment to the 1984 United Nations Convention Against Torture. Max Planck Institute for European Legal History, available at <https://archive.org/details/research_paper_no2018-01>.Google Scholar
Klotz, Audie. 1995. “Norms Reconstituting Interests: Global Racial Equality and US Sanctions against South Africa.” International Organization 49(3):451–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kratochwil, Friedrich. 1989. Rules, Norms, and Decisions: On the Conditions of Practical and Legal Reasoning in International Relations and Domestic Affairs. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krook, Mona L. and True, Jacqui. 2010. “Rethinking the Life Cycles of International Norms: The United Nations and the Global Promotion of Gender Equality.” European Journal of International Relations 18(1):103–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Langbein, John H. 1977. Torture and the Law of Proof: Europe and England in the Ancien Régime. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lantis, Jeffrey. 2011. “Redefining the Nonproliferation Norm? Australian Uranium, the NPT, and the Global Nuclear Revival.” Australian Journal of Politics and History 57(4):534–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lantis, Jeffrey and Wunderlich, Carmen. 2018. “Resiliency Dynamics of Norm Clusters: Norm Contestation and International Cooperation.” Review of International Studies 44(3):570–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liebel, Manfred. 2012. ‘‘Do Children Have a Right to Work? Working Children’s Movements in the Struggle.’’ In Reconceptualizing Children’s Rights in International Development: Living Rights, Social Justice, Translations, edited by Hanson, Karl and Nieuwenhuys, Olga, 225–49. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liese, Andrea. 2009. “Exceptional Necessity – How Liberal Democracies Contest the Prohibition of Torture and Ill-Treatment when Countering Terrorism.” Journal of International Law and International Relations 5(1):17–47.Google Scholar
Lopez, George A. 2006. “The Style of the New War: Making the Rules as We Go Along.” Ethics and International Affairs 16(1):21–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
March, James G. and Olsen, Johan P.. 1998. “The Institutional Dynamics of International Political Orders.” International Organization 52(4):943–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matz, Nele. 2005. “Civilization and the Mandate System under the League of Nations as Origin of Trusteeship.” Max Planck UNYB 9:47–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McAdam, Jane. 2009. ‘‘Review Essay: From Economic Refugees to Climate Refugees.’’ Melbourne Journal of International Law 10(2):579–95.Google Scholar
McCoy, Alfred. 2006. A Question of Torture: CIA Interrogation, from the Cold War to the War on Terror. New York, NY: Henry Holt and Co.Google Scholar
McKeown, Ryder. 2009. “Norm Regress: US Revisionism and the Slow Death of the Torture Norm.” International Relations 23(1):5–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mohamed, Daira. 2005. “From Keeping Peace to Building Peace.” Columbia Law Review 105:809–40.Google Scholar
Memorandum for Inspector General, Department of the Navy, from Alberto J. Mora, General Counsel of the Navy, ‘Subj: Statement for the Record: Office of General Counsel Involvement in Interrogation Issues’ (7 July 2004) available at <https://www.thetorturedatabase.org/files/foia_subsite/mora_memo_july_2004_0.pdf>..>Google Scholar
Müller, Harald and Wunderlich, Carmen. 2018. “Not Lost in Contestation: How Norm Entrepreneurs Frame Norm Development in the Nuclear Nonproliferation Regime.” Contemporary Security Policy 39(3):341–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nadelmann, Ethan. 1990. “Global Prohibition Regimes: The Evolution of Norms in International Society.” International Organization 44(4):479–526.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Niemann, Holger and Schillinger, Henrik. 2017. “Contestation ‘All the Way Down’? The Grammar of Contestation in Norm Research.” Review of International Studies 43(1):29–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nuñez-Mietz, Fernando and García Iommi, Lucrecia. 2017. “Can Transnational Norm Advocacy Undermine Internalization? Explaining Immunization against LGBT Rights in Uganda.” International Studies Quarterly 61(1):196–209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olsen, Johan. 2001. “Garbage Cans, New Institutionalism, and the Study of Politics.” American Political Science Review 95(1):191–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oola, Stephen. 2015. ‘In the Shadow of Kwoyelo’s Trial. The ICC and Complementarity in Uganda.” In Contested Justice. The Politics and Practice of International Criminal Court Interventions, edited by De Vos, Christian, Kendall, Sara and Stahn, Carsten, 147–70. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Panke, Diana and Petersohn, Ulrich. 2011. “Why International Norms Disappear Sometimes.” European Journal of International Relations 18(4):719–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Park, Susan. 2005. “How Transnational Environmental Advocacy Networks Socialize International Financial Institutions: A Case Study of the International Finance Corporation.” Global Environmental Politics 5(4):95–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Park, Susan and Vetterlein, Antje. 2010. Owning Development: Creating Policy Norms in the IMF and the World Bank. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pensky, Max. 2008. “Amnesty on Trial: Impunity, Accountability, and the Norms of International Law.” Ethics and Global Politics 1(1-2):1–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Percy, Sarah and Sandholtz, Wayne. 2017. “Do Norms Really Die?” Paper presented in the 2017 International Studies Association Annual Convention, Baltimore, MD.Google Scholar
Price, Richard. 1998. “Reversing the Gun Sights: Transnational Civil Society Targets Land Mines.” International Organization 52(3):613–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Risse, Thomas and Sikkink, Kathryn. 1999. “The Socialization of International Human Rights Norms into Domestic Practices: Introduction.” In Risse, Thomas, Ropp, Stephen and Sikkink, Kathryn (eds), The Power of Human Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Risse, Thomas, Ropp, Stephen and Sikkink, Kathryn. 1999. The Power of Human Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rodley, Nigel S. 2002. “The Definition(s) of Torture in International Law.” Current Legal Problems 55(1):467.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruggie, John. 1998. “What Makes the World Hang Together? Neo-Utilitarianism and the Social Constructivist Challenge.” International Organization 52(4):855–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rumsfeld Memo 2005 (2002). “Counter-Resistance Techniques.” In The Torture Papers: The Road to Abu Ghraib, edited by Greenberg, Karen and Dratel, Joshua, 239. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sandholtz, Wayne. 2007. Prohibiting Plunder: How Norms Change. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sandholtz, Wayne. 2008. “Dynamics of International Norm Change: Rules against Wartime Plunder.” European Journal of International Relations 14(1):101–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sandholtz, Wayne and Stiles, Kendall. 2009. International Norms and Cycles of Change. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Schmidt, Averell and Sikkink, Kathryn. 2018. “Partners in Crime: An Empirical Evaluation of the CIA Rendition, Detention, and Interrogation Program.” Perspectives on Politics 16(4):1014–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Segerlund, Lisbeth. 2010. Making Corporate Social Responsibility a Global Concern: Norm Construction in a Globalizing World. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing.Google Scholar
Silverman, Lisa. 2001. Tortured Subjects: Pain, Truth, and the Body in Early Modern France. Chicago, IL and London: The University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tannenwald, Nina. 1999. “The Nuclear Taboo: The United States and the Normative Basis of Nuclear Non-Use.” International Organization 53(3):433–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tourinho, Marcos, Stuenkel, Oliverand Brockmeier, Sarah. 2016. “Responsibility while Protecting: Reforming R2P Implementation” Global Society 30(1):134–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Administrative Oversight and the Courts, “What Went Wrong: Torture and the Office of Legal Counsel in the Bush Administration: Statement of FBI Agent Ali Soufan at Torture Hearings.” (13 May 2009) available at <http://www.judiciary.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/soufan_testi-mony_05_13_09.pdf>..>Google Scholar
United States Supreme Court. 2006. Hamdan v. Rumsfeld 548 U.S. 557, available at <https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/548/05-184/index.pdf>..>Google Scholar
Van Kersbergen, Kees and Verbeek, Bertjan. 2007. “The Politics of International Norms: Subsidiarity and the Imperfect Competence Regime of the European Union.” European Journal of International Relations 13(2):217–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vidmar, Jure. 2010. “The Right of Self-Determination and Multiparty Democracy: Two Sides of the Same Coin?” Human Rights Law Review 10(2):239–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiner, Myron. 1998. “The Clash of Norms: Dilemmas in Refugee Policies.” Journal of Refugee Studies 11(4):433–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiener, Antje. 2004. “Contested Compliance: Interventions on the Normative Structure of World Politics.” European Journal of International Relations 10(2):189–234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiener, Antje. 2008. The Invisible Constitution of Politics. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiener, Antje. 2014. A Theory of Contestation. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiener, Antje. 2017a. “Access to Contestation for Stakeholders and Normative Robustness in Global Society”, available at <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318012071_Access_to_Contestation_for_Stakeholders_and_Normative_Robustness_in_Global_Society>.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiener, Antje. 2017b. “A Theory of Contestation – A Concise Summary of Its Arguments and Concepts.” Polity 49(1):109–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiener, Antje. 2017c. “Agency of the Governed in Global International Relations: Access to Norm Validation.” Third World Thematics: A TWQ Journal 2(5):709–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiener, Antje and Puetter, Uwe. 2009. “The Quality of Norms Is What Actors Make of It: Critical Constructivist Research on Norms.” Journal of International Law and International Relations 5(8):1–16.Google Scholar
Wilson, Woodrow. 1917. “Speech to Congress, 2 April 1917”, available at <http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/usawardeclaration.htm>.Google Scholar
Wylie, Gillian. 2016. ‘‘Norm Construction in International Politics.’’ In The International Politics of Human Trafficking, 21–41. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wunderlich, Carmen. 2013. “Theoretical Approaches in Norm Dynamics.” In Norm Dynamics in Multilateral Arms Control. Interests, Conflicts, and Justice, edited by Muller, Harald and Wunderlich, Carmen, 20–47. Athens, GA: The University of Georgia Press.Google Scholar
Yildiz, Ezgi, “A Norm in Flux: The Development of the Norm Against Torture under the European Convention from a Macro Perspective.’’ (16 February 2016). iCourts Working Paper Series 45, available at <https://ssrn.com/abstract=2733105>.CrossRef.>Google Scholar
Yoo, John. 2005 [2002]. Letter regarding ‘the views of our Office concerning the legality, under international law, of interrogation methods to be used on captured al Qaeda operatives’. In The Torture Papers: The Road to Abu Ghraib, edited by Greenberg, Karen and Dratel, Joshua, 218–22. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Zimmermann, Lisbeth, Deitelhoff, Nicole and Lesch, Max. 2017. “Unlocking the Agency of the Governed: Contestation and Norm Dynamics.” Third World Thematics: A TWQ Journal 2(5):691–708.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zwingel, Susanne. 2013. “Translating International Women’s Rights Norms: CEDAW in Context.” In Feminist Strategies in International Governance, edited by Caglar, Gülay, Prügl, Elisabeth and Zwingel, Susanne, 133–48. London: Routledge.Google Scholar