Hostname: page-component-6bb9c88b65-9c7xm Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-07-25T01:29:57.218Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Explaining Terrorism: Leadership Deficits and Militant Group Tactics

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 March 2015

Max Abrahms  and
Philip B.K. Potter
Get access

Abstract

Certain types of militant groups—those suffering from leadership deficits—are more likely to attack civilians. Their leadership deficits exacerbate the principal-agent problem between leaders and foot soldiers, who have stronger incentives to harm civilians. We establish the validity of this proposition with a tripartite research strategy that balances generalizability and identification. First, we demonstrate in a sample of militant organizations operating in the Middle East and North Africa that those lacking centralized leadership are prone to targeting civilians. Second, we show that when the leaderships of militant groups are degraded from drone strikes in the Afghanistan-Pakistan tribal regions, the selectivity of organizational violence plummets. Third, we elucidate the mechanism with a detailed case study of the al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade, a Palestinian group that turned to terrorism during the Second Intifada because pressure on leadership allowed low-level members to act on their preexisting incentives to attack civilians. These findings indicate that a lack of principal control is an important, underappreciated cause of militant group violence against civilians.

Information

Type
Research Article
Information
International Organization , Volume 69 , Issue 2 , Spring 2015 , pp. 311 - 342
Copyright
Copyright © The IO Foundation 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Abadie, Alberto. 2006. Poverty, Political Freedom, and the Roots of Terrorism. American Economic Review 96 (2):50–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abrahms, Max. 2006. Why Terrorism Does Not Work. International Security 31 (2):42–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abrahms, Max. 2007. Why Democracies Make Superior Counterterrorists. Security Studies 16 (2):223–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abrahms, Max. 2008. What Terrorists Really Want: Terrorist Motives and Counterterrorism Strategy. International Security 32 (4):78–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abrahms, Max. 2012. The Political Effectiveness of Terrorism Revisited. Comparative Political Studies 45 (3):366–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abrahms, Max. 2013. The Credibility Paradox: Violence as a Double-Edged Sword in International Politics. International Studies Quarterly 12 (1):660–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abrahms, Max, and Gottfried, Matthew. 2014. Does Terrorism Pay? An Empirical Analysis. Terrorism and Political Violence 1–18. Available at <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09546553.2013.879057#.VLPyIsnpxll>.Google Scholar
Achen, Christopher H. 2002. Toward a New Political Methodology: Microfoundations and Art. Annual Review of Political Science 5 (1):423–50.Google Scholar
Achen, Christopher H. 2005. Let's Put Garbage-Can Regressions and Garbage-Can Probits Where They Belong. Conflict Management and Peace Science 22 (4):327–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission. 2011. Afghanistan: Annual Report on Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict 2010. Kabul, Afghanistan: AIHRC.Google Scholar
Allen, Lori. 2002. Palestinians Debate “Polite” Resistance to Occupation. MERIP Middle East Report 30 (225):38–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alter, Karen J. 2006. Delegation to International Courts and the Limits of Re-contracting Political Power. In Delegation and Agency in International Organizations, edited by Hawkins, Darren G., Lake, David A., Nielson, Daniel L., and Tierney, Michael J., 312–38. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Al-Zawahiri, Ayman. 2005. Letter from al-Zawahiri to al-Zarqawi, 9 July 2005. Available at <http://www.globalsecurity.org/security/library/report/2005/zawahiri-zarqawi-letter_9jul2005.htm>. Accessed 12 May 2014..+Accessed+12+May+2014.>Google Scholar
Arquilla, John, and Karasik, Theodore. 1999. Chechnya: A Glimpse of Future Conflict? Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 22 (3):207–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arquilla, John, and Ronfeldt, David F.. 1999. The Emergence of Noopolitik: Toward an American Information Strategy. Santa Monica, CA: Rand.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arquilla, John, and Ronfeldt, David F.. 2001. Networks and Netwars: The Future of Terror, Crime, and Militancy. Santa Monica, CA: Rand.Google Scholar
Asal, Victor, Pate, Amy, and Wilkenfeld, Jonathan. 2008. Minorities at Risk Organizational Behavior Data and Codebook Version 9/2008. Available at <http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/mar/data.asp>. Accessed 12 May 2014..+Accessed+12+May+2014.>Google Scholar
Asal, Victor, and Rethemeyer, R. Karl. 2008. The Nature of the Beast: Organizational Structures and the Lethality of Terrorist Attacks. Journal of Politics 70 (2):437–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Azam, Jean-Paul, and Delacroix, Alexandra. 2006. Aid and the Delegated Fight Against Terrorism. Review of Development Economics 10 (2):330–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banks, Arthur S., and Wilson, Kenneth A.. 2013. Cross-National Time-Series Data Archive. Databanks International. Jerusalem. Available at <http://www.databanksinternational.com>. Accessed 12 May 2014..+Accessed+12+May+2014.>Google Scholar
Berrebi, Claude. 2009. The Economics of Terrorism and Counterterrorism: What Matters and Is Rational-Choice Theory Helpful? In Social Science for Counterterrorism: Putting the Pieces Together, edited by Davis, Paul K. and Cragin, Kim, 151–202. Santa Monica, CA: Rand.Google Scholar
Berrebi, Claude, and Klor, Esteban F.. 2006. On Terrorism and Electoral Outcomes: Theory and Evidence from the Israeli–Palestinian Conflict. Journal of Conflict Resolution 50 (6):899–925.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berrebi, Claude, and Klor, Esteban F.. 2008. Are Voters Sensitive to Terrorism? Direct Evidence from the Israeli Electorate. American Political Science Review 102 (3):279–301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bishara, Azmi. 2003. The Quest for Strategy. Journal of Palestine Studies 32 (2):41–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bloom, Mia M. 2004. Palestinian Suicide Bombing: Public Support, Market Share, and Outbidding. Political Science Quarterly 119 (1):61–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brennan, John O. 2012. The Ethics and Efficacy of the President's Counterterrorism Strategy. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Washington, DC. Available at <http://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/the-efficacy-and-ethics-us-counterterrorism-strategy>. Accessed 25 June 2014.. Accessed 25 June 2014.' href=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Brennan,+John+O.+2012.+The+Ethics+and+Efficacy+of+the+President's+Counterterrorism+Strategy.+Woodrow+Wilson+International+Center+for+Scholars,+Washington,+DC.+Available+at+.+Accessed+25+June+2014.>Google Scholar
Butler, Christopher K., Gluch, Tali, and Mitchell, Neil J.. 2007. Security Forces and Sexual Violence: A Cross-National Analysis of a Principal-Agent Argument. Journal of Peace Research 44 (6):669–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Byman, Daniel, and Kreps, Sarah E.. 2010. Agents of Destruction? Applying Principal-Agent Analysis to State-Sponsored Terrorism. International Studies Perspectives 11 (1):1–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caplan, Bryan. 2006. Terrorism: The Relevance of the Rational Choice Model. Public Choice 128 (1–2):91–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, David B., and Signorino, Curtis S.. 2010. Back to the Future: Modeling Time Dependence in Binary Data. Political Analysis 18 (3):271–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chenoweth, Erica, Miller, Nicholas, McClellan, Elizabeth, Frisch, Hillel, Staniland, Paul, and Abrahms, Max. 2009. What Makes Terrorists Tick. International Security 33 (4):180–202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chenoweth, Erica, and Stephan, Maria J.. 2011. Why Civil Resistance Works: The Strategic Logic of Nonviolent Conflict. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Chowanietz, Christophe. 2011. Rallying Around the Flag or Railing Against the Government? Political Parties' Reactions to Terrorist Acts. Party Politics 17 (5):673–98.Google Scholar
Collier, Paul, and Hoeffler, Anke. 2004. Greed and Grievance in Civil War. Oxford Economic Papers 56 (4):563–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cordes, Bonnie, Hoffman, Bruce, Jenkins, Brian M., Kellen, Konrad, Moran, Sue E., and Sater, William F.. 1984. Trends in International Terrorism, 1982 and 1983. Santa Monica, CA: Rand.Google Scholar
Cortell, Andrew P., and Peterson, Susan. 2006. Dutiful Agents, Rogue Actors, or Both? Staffing, Voting Rules, and Slack in the WHO and WTO. In Delegation and Agency in International Organizations, edited by Hawkins, Darren G., Lake, David A., Nielson, Daniel L., and Tierney, Michael J., 255–80. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crenshaw, Martha. 1987. Theories of Terrorism: Instrumental and Organizational Approaches. Journal of Strategic Studies 10 (4):13–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cronin, Audrey K. 2003. Behind the Curve: Globalization and International Terrorism. International Security 27 (3):30–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cronin, Audrey K. 2006. How al-Qaida Ends: The Decline and Demise of Terrorist Groups. International Security 31 (1):7–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cronin, Audrey K. 2009. How Terrorism Ends: Understanding the Decline and Demise of Terrorist Campaigns. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Crozier, Brian. 1960. The Rebels. Boston: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Cunningham, Kathleen G., Bakke, Kristin M., and Seymour, Lee J.M.. 2012. Shirts Today, Skins Tomorrow: Dual Contests and the Effects of Fragmentation in Self-Determination Disputes. Journal of Conflict Resolution 56 (1):67–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
David, Steven R. 2003. Israel's Policy of Targeted Killing. Ethics and International Affairs 17 (1):111–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeNardo, James. 1985. Power in Numbers: The Political Strategy of Protest and Rebellion. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Downes, Alexander B. 2006. Desperate Times, Desperate Measures: The Causes of Civilian Victimization in War. International Security 30 (4):152–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DuPee, Matthew C., Johnson, Thomas H., and Dearing, Matthew P.. 2009. Understanding Afghan Culture—Analyzing the Taliban Code of Conduct: Reinventing the Layeha. Culture and Conflict Studies Occasional Paper. Monterey, CA: Naval Postgraduate School.Google Scholar
Dzutsev, Valery. 2012. Leader of the Caucasus Emirate Vows to Stop Attacks Against Russian Civilians. Eurasia Daily Monitor 9 (24). Available at <http://www.jamestown.org/programs/edm/archives/2012/?tx_publicationsttnews_pi2%5Bissue%5D=24>. Accessed 25 June 2014.Google Scholar
Eilstrup-Sangiovanni, Mette, and Jones, Calvert. 2008. Assessing the Dangers of Illicit Networks: Why Al-Qaida May Be Less Threatening Than Many Think. International Security 33 (2):7–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eubank, William Lee, and Weinberg, Leonard. 1994. Does Democracy Encourage Terrorism? Terrorism and Political Violence 6 (4):417–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fazal, Tanisha. 2013. Secessionism and Civilian Targeting. Prepared for the 2013 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, August, Chicago. Available at the Social Science Research Network <http://ssrn.com/abstract=2300126>. Accessed 12 May 2014..+Accessed+12+May+2014.>Google Scholar
Felter, Joseph H. 2008. Taking Guns to a Knife Fight: Effective Military Support to COIN. Civilian Research Paper. Carlisle Barracks, PA: US Army War College.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferrell, O.C, and Skinner, Steven J.. 1988. Ethical Behavior and Bureaucratic Structure in Marketing Research Organizations. Journal of Marketing Research 25 (1):103–9.Google Scholar
Fletcher, Holly. 2008. Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade. Washington, DC: Council on Foreign Relations. Available at <http://www.cfr.org/israel/al-aqsa-martyrs-brigade/p9127>. Accessed 25 June 2014..+Accessed+25+June+2014.>Google Scholar
Fortna, Virginia Page. 2012. Do Terrorists Win? Rebels' Use of Terrorism and Civil War Outcomes . Working Paper. New York: Columbia University.Google Scholar
Friedman, Gil. 2008. Strategic Deficiencies in National Liberation Struggles: The Case of Fatah in the Al-Aqsa Intifada. Journal of Strategic Studies 31 (1):41–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaibulloev, Khusrav, and Sandler, Todd. 2009. Hostage Taking: Determinants of Terrorist Logistical and Negotiation Success. Journal of Peace Research 46 (6):739–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galbraith, Jay R. 2007. Organization Design. In Handbook of Organization Development, edited by Cummings, Thomas G., 325–52. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Ganor, Boaz. 2002. Defining Terrorism: Is One Man's Terrorist Another Man's Freedom Fighter? Police Practice and Research 3 (4):287–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
George, Alexander L., and Bennett, Andrew A.. 2005. Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Getmansky, Anna, and Sinmazdemir, Tolga. 2012. Success Breeds Failure: The Effect of Terrorist Attacks on Land Control in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict. Prepared for the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, August, New Orleans, LA.Google Scholar
Gill, Paul, and Young, Joseph K.. 2011. Comparing Role Specific Terrorist Profiles. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the International Studies Association, March, Montreal, Canada.Google Scholar
Goodwin, Jeff. 2006. A Theory of Categorical Terrorism. Social Forces 84 (4):2027–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gould, Erica R. 2003. Money Talks: Supplementary Financiers and International Monetary Fund Conditionality. International Organization 57 (3):551–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gould, Erica R. 2006. Delegating IMF Conditionality: Understanding Variations in Control and Conformity. In Delegation and Agency in International Organizations, edited by Hawkins, Darren G., Lake, David A., Nielson, Daniel L., and Tierney, Michael J., 281–311. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gould, Eric D., and Klor, Esteban F.. 2010. Does Terrorism Work? Quarterly Journal of Economics 125 (4):1459–510.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenberg, Maurice R., Wechsler, William F., and Wolosky, Lee S.. 2002. Terrorist Financing: Report of an Independent Task Force. New York: Council on Foreign Relations.Google Scholar
Gunaratna, Rohan. 2002. Inside Al Qaeda: Global Network of Terror. New York: Columbia University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gurr, Ted R. 2000. Peoples Versus States: Minorities at Risk in the New Century. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace.Google Scholar
Hawkins, Darren G., Lake, David A., Nielson, Daniel L., and Tierney, Michael J., eds. 2006. Delegation and Agency in International Organizations. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawkins, Darren G., and Jacoby, Wade. 2006. How Agents Matter. In Delegation and Agency in International Organizations, edited by Hawkins, Darren G., Lake, David A., Nielson, Daniel L., and Tierney, Michael J., 199–228. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawkins, Darren G., and Jacoby, Wade. 2008. Agent Permeability, Principal Delegation and the European Court of Human Rights. The Review of International Organizations 3 (1):1–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoffman, Bruce. 1998. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Hoffman, Bruce. 1999. Terrorism Trends and Prospects. In Countering the New Terrorism, edited by Lesser, Ian O., Hoffman, Bruce, Arquilla, John, Ronfeldt, David, Zanini, Michele, and Jenkins, Brian M., 7–38. Santa Monica, CA: Rand.Google Scholar
Hoffman, Bruce. 2003. Al Qaeda, Trends in Terrorism, and Future Potentialities: An Assessment. Santa Monica, CA: Rand.Google Scholar
Hoffman, Bruce. 2006. Inside Terrorism. Updated ed. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Horowitz, Michael C. 2010. Nonstate Actors and the Diffusion of Innovations: The Case of Suicide Terrorism. International Organization 64 (1):33–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Humphreys, Macartan, and Weinstein, Jeremy M.. 2006. Handling and Manhandling Civilians in Civil War. American Political Science Review 100 (3):429–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
International Crisis Group. 2004. Who Governs the West Bank? Palestinian Administration Under Israeli Occupation. Middle East Report 32. Amman/Brussels: International Crisis Group.Google Scholar
International Crisis Group. 2008. Taliban Propaganda: Winning the War of the Words? Asia Report 158. Brussels: International Crisis Group.Google Scholar
Johnston, Patrick B. 2012. Does Decapitation Work? Assessing the Effectiveness of Leadership Targeting in Counterinsurgency Campaigns. International Security 36 (4):47–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, Seth G., and Libicki, Martin C.. 2008. How Terrorist Groups End: Lessons for Countering Al Qaída. Santa Monica, CA: Rand.Google Scholar
Joosse, Paul. 2007. Leaderless Resistance and Ideological Inclusion: The Case of the Earth Liberation Front. Terrorism and Political Violence 19 (3):351–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jordan, Jenna. 2009. When Heads Roll: Assessing the Effectiveness of Leadership Decapitation. Security Studies 18 (4):719–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Juergensmeyer, Mark. 2000. Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Kalleberg, Arne L., Knoke, David, and Marsden, Peter V., eds. 1996. Organizations in America: Analyzing Their Structures and Human Resource Practices. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Kalyvas, Stathis N. 2006. The Logic of Violence in Civil War. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalyvas, Stathis N. 2007. Book Review. Inside Rebellion: The Politics of Insurgent Violence, by Jeremy M. Weinstein. Comparative Political Studies 40 (9):1146–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaplan, Jeffrey. 1997. “Leaderless Resistance.” Terrorism and Political Violence 9 (3):80–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kiewiet, D. Roderick, and McCubbins, Mathew D.. 1991. The Logic of Delegation: Congressional Parties and the Appropriations Process. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
King, Gary, Honaker, James, Joseph, Anne, and Scheve, Kenneth. 2001. Analyzing Incomplete Political Science Data: An Alternative Algorithm for Multiple Imputation. American Political Science Review 95 (1):49–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kleponis, Greg. 2009. China's Role in the Stabilization of Afghanistan. “Of Interest” Paper Series. Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute.Google Scholar
Krahmann, Elke. 2003. Conceptualizing Security Governance. Cooperation and Conflict 38 (1):5–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lake, David A. 2002. Rational Extremism: Understanding Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century. Dialogue IO 1 (1):15–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lake, David A. 2007. Delegating Divisible Sovereignty: Sweeping a Conceptual Minefield. Review of International Organizations 2 (3):219–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lake, David A., and McCubbins, Mathew D.. 2006. The Logic of Delegation to International Organizations. In Delegation and Agency in International Organizations, edited by Hawkins, Darren G., Lake, David A., Nielson, Daniel L., and Tierney, Michael J., 341–68. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lankford, Adam. 2013. The Myth of Martyrdom: What Really Drives Suicide Bombers, Rampage Shooters, and Other Self-Destructive Killers. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Laqueur, Walter. 1976. The Futility of Terrorism. Harper's Magazine March: 99–105.Google Scholar
Laqueur, Walter. 1977. Interpretations of Terrorism: Fact, Fiction and Political Science. Journal of Contemporary History 12 (1):1–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, Quan. 2005. Does Democracy Promote or Reduce Transnational Terrorist Incidents? Journal of Conflict Resolution 49 (2):278–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, Quan, and Schaub, Drew. 2004. Economic Globalization and Transnational Terrorism: A Pooled Time-Series Analysis. Journal of Conflict Resolution 48 (2):230–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lilja, Jannie. 2009. Trapping Constituents or Winning Hearts and Minds? Rebel Strategies to Attain Constituent Support in Sri Lanka. Terrorism and Political Violence 2 (2):306–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyall, Jason. 2010. Do Democracies Make Inferior Counterinsurgents? Reassessing Democracy's Impact on War Outcomes and Duration. International Organization 64 (1):167–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Margalit, Avishai. 2003. The Suicide Bombers. New York Review of Books 50 (1):36–39.Google Scholar
Miller, Gregory. 2008. Innovation and Imitation Within Terrorist Groups. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association, March, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Milner, Helen V. 2006. Why Multilateralism? Foreign Aid and Domestic Principal-Agent Problems. In Delegation and Agency in International Organizations, edited by Hawkins, Darren G., Lake, David A., Nielson, Daniel L., and Tierney, Michael J., 107–39. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, Neil J., Carey, Sabine C., and Butler, Christopher K.. 2012. Delegating Repression: Pro-Government Militias and Human Rights Violations. Working Paper. Mannheim, Germany: Universität Mannheim.Google Scholar
Moghadam, Assaf. 2003. Palestinian Suicide Terrorism in the Second Intifada: Motivations and Organizational Aspects. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 26 (2):65–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moghadam, Assaf. 2006. Suicide Terrorism, Occupation, and the Globalization of Martyrdom: A Critique of Dying to Win. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 29 (8):707–29.Google Scholar
Morrow, James D. 2007. When Do States Follow the Laws of War? American Political Science Review 101 (3):559–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mueller, John E. 2006. Overblown: How Politicians and the Terrorism Industry Inflate National Security Threats, and Why We Believe Them. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Mulder, Mauk. 1960. Communication Structure, Decision Structure and Group Performance. Sociometry 23 (1):1–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism (START). 2003. Global Terrorism Database: Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades. College Park: University of Maryland. Available at <http://www.start.umd.edu/gtd>. Accessed 25 June 2014..+Accessed+25+June+2014.>Google Scholar
National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism (START). 2012. Global Terrorism Database [Data File]. College Park: University of Maryland. Available at <http://www.start.umd.edu/gtd>. Accessed 25 June 2014..+Accessed+25+June+2014.>Google Scholar
Neumann, Peter R., and Smith, M.L.R.. 2008. The Strategy of Terrorism: How It Works, and Why It Fails. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Pape, Robert A. 2003. The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. American Political Science Review 97 (3):343–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pape, Robert A. 2005. Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
Pearlman, Wendy. 2009. Spoiling Inside and Out: Internal Political Contestation and the Middle East Peace Process. International Security 33 (3):79–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearlman, Wendy. 2011. Violence, Nonviolence, and the Palestinian National Movement. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pollack, Mark A. 1997. Delegation, Agency, and Agenda Setting in the European Community. International Organization 51 (1):99–134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pollack, Mark A. 2002. Learning from the Americanists (Again): Theory and Method in the Study of Delegation. West European Politics 25 (1):200–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Price, Bryan C. 2012. Targeting Top Terrorists: How Leadership Decapitation Contributes to Counterterrorism. International Security 36 (4):9–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pugh, D.S. 1973. The Measurement of Organization Structures: Does Context Determine Form? Organizational Dynamics 1 (4):19–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rabushka, Alvin, and Shepsle, Kenneth A.. 1972. Politics in Plural Societies: A Theory of Democratic Instability. Columbus, OH: Merrill.Google Scholar
Richardson, Louise. 2006. What Terrorists Want: Understanding the Enemy, Containing the Threat. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
Sageman, Marc. 2004. Understanding Terror Networks. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sageman, Marc. 2008. Leaderless Jihad: Terror Networks in the Twenty-First Century. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press,CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salehyan, Idean. 2010. The Delegation of War to Rebel Organizations. Journal of Conflict Resolution 54 (3):493–515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sambanis, Nicholas. 2008. Terrorism and Civil War. In Terrorism, Economic Development, and Political Openness, edited by Keefer, Philip and Loayza, Norman, 174–208. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sandler, Todd. 2005. Collective Versus Unilateral Responses to Terrorism. Public Choice 124 (1–2):75–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sayigh, Yezid. 2001. Arafat and the Anatomy of a Revolt. Survival 43 (3):47–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schelling, Thomas C. 1991. What Purposes Can “International Terrorism” Serve? In Violence, Terrorism, and Justice, edited by Frey, R.G. and Morris, Christopher W., 18–32. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmid, Alex P., and Jongman, Albert J.. 2005. Political Terrorism: A New Guide to Actors, Authors, Concepts, Data Bases, Theories, and Literature. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.Google Scholar
Scott, W. Richard. 1987. Organizations: Rational, Natural, and Open Systems. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Shapiro, Jacob N. 2012. Terrorist Decision-Making: Insights from Economics and Political Science. Perspectives on Terrorism 6 (4–5):5–20.Google Scholar
Shapiro, Jacob N. 2013. The Terrorist's Dilemma: Managing Violent Covert Organizations. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Shapiro, Jacob N., and Siegel, David A.. 2007. Underfunding in Terrorist Organizations. International Studies Quarterly 51 (2):405–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shapiro, Jacob N., and Siegel, David A.. 2012. Moral Hazard, Discipline, and the Management of Terrorist Organizations. World Politics 64 (1):39–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Megan, and Walsh, James I.. 2013. Do Drone Strikes Degrade Al Qaeda? Evidence from Propaganda Output. Terrorism and Political Violence 25:311–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stanton, Jessica A. 2013. Terrorism in the Context of Civil War. Journal of Politics 75 (4):1009–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stedman, Stephen J. 1997. Spoiler Problems in Peace Processes. International Security 22 (2):5–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stepanova, Ekaterina A. 2008. Terrorism in Asymmetrical Conflict: Ideological and Structural Aspects. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Stork, Joe. 2002. Erased in a Moment: Suicide Bombing Attacks Against Israeli Civilians. New York: Human Rights Watch.Google Scholar
Subrahmanian, V.S., Mannes, Aaron, Sliva, Amy, Shakarian, Jana, and Dickerson, John P.. 2013. Computational Analysis of Terrorist Groups: Lashkar-e-Taiba. New York: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomson, Janice E. 1994. Mercenaries, Pirates, and Sovereigns: State-Building and Extraterritorial Violence in Early Modern Europe. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Usher, Graham. 2003. Facing Defeat: The Intifada Two Years On. Journal of Palestine Studies 32 (2):21–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valentino, Benjamin, Huth, Paul, and Balch-Lindsay, Dylan. 2004. “Draining the Sea”: Mass Killing and Guerrilla Warfare. International Organization 58 (2):375–407.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walsh, James I., and Piazza, James A.. 2010. Why Respecting Physical Integrity Rights Reduces Terrorism. Comparative Political Studies 43 (5):551–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walzer, Michael. 2002. Five Questions About Terrorism. Dissent 49 (1):5–10.Google Scholar
Weinstein, Jeremy M. 2007. Inside Rebellion: The Politics of Insurgent Violence. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, Paul. 1986. Terrorism and the Liberal State. 2nd ed. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Wood, Elisabeth J. 2006. Variation in Sexual Violence During War. Politics and Society 34 (3):307–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, Reed M. 2010. Rebel Capability and Strategic Violence Against Civilians. Journal of Peace Research 47 (5):601–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, Reed M., and Kathman, Jacob D.. 2014. Too Much of a Bad Thing? Civilian Victimization and Bargaining in Civil War. British Journal of Political Science 44 (3):1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zelkovitz, Ido. 2008. Fatah's Embrace of Islamism. Middle East Quarterly 15 (2):19–26.Google Scholar
Zey-Ferrell, Mary. 1979. Readings in Dimensions of Organizations: Environment, Context, Structure, Process, and Performance. Santa Monica, CA: Goodyear.Google Scholar