Hostname: page-component-7dd5485656-zlgnt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-10-30T21:12:11.585Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Managing innovation in English language education

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 October 2009

Alan Waters
Alan Waters*
Affiliation:
Lancaster University, UKa.waters@lancaster.ac.uk
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Innovation in English language education (ELE) has become a major ‘growth area’ in recent years. At the same time, an ELE innovation management literature has also developed, based on insights from innovation theory and their application, both from outside and within ELE, and concerned with attempting to critically evaluate and inform ELE innovation practice. Thus, using a well-established three-part framework for distinguishing the main stages involved in innovation project management, this review describes and discusses the main features of this body of work. After defining terms and clarifying its scope, it considers what is said about the innovation ‘initiation’ phase, in terms of innovation causes, characteristics and contexts. It then examines conceptualisations of the innovation ‘implementation’ stage, by distinguishing main overall approaches, frameworks for identifying and configuring roles, underlying psychological processes, and the use of evaluation techniques. Lastly, the literature relating to innovation ‘institutionalisation’ stage is analysed. The article concludes by identifying overall trends and areas for further development. In particular, it is argued that ELE innovation work needs to become more informed by many of the concepts and procedures which the ELE innovation management literature contains.

Information

Type
Research Article
Information
Language Teaching , Volume 42 , Issue 4 , October 2009 , pp. 421 - 458
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Adamson, B. & Davison, C. (2008). English language teaching in Hong Kong primary schools: Innovation and resistance. In Murray (ed.), 11–25.Google Scholar
Adey, P. (2004). The professional development of teachers: Practice and theory. Dordretch: Kluwer.Google Scholar
Ajzen, I. (1988). Attitudes, personality and behavior. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.Google Scholar
Alderson, J. C. (1992). Guidelines for the evaluation of language education. In Alderson & Beretta (eds.), 274–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alderson, J. C. (ed.) (2009). The politics of language education: Individuals and institutions. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Alderson, J. C. & Beretta, A. (eds.) (1992). Evaluating second language education. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allwright, D. & Lenzuen, R. (1997). Exploratory practice: Work at the Cultural Inglesa, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Language Teaching Research 1.1, 73–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allwright, D. & Waters, A. (eds.) (1994). Language in aid projects: Towards the year 2000. Lancaster University: Centre for Research in Language Education. [Colloquium proceedings]Google Scholar
Allwright, R. L. (1981). What do we want teaching materials for? ELT Journal 36.1, 5–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bax, S. (2003). CALL – past, present and future. System 31.1, 13–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bennis, W., Benne, K. D. & Chin, R. (eds.) (1984). The planning of change (4th edn.). London: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. [1st edn. 1970, New York]Google Scholar
Beretta, A. (1992). What can be learned from the Bangalore evaluation? In Alderson & Beretta (eds.), 250–271.Google Scholar
Blackler, F. H. M. & Shimmin, S. (1984). Applying psychology in organizations. New York: Methuen.Google Scholar
Bowers, R. (1994). Towards 2000. In Allwright & Waters (eds.), 118–123.Google Scholar
Bray, T. & Luxon, T. (1999). The role of baseline studies in ELT projects. In Kennedy (ed.), 32–39.Google Scholar
Breen, M. P., Candlin, C. N., Dam, L. & Gabrielsen, G. (1989). The evolution of a teacher training programme. In Johnson, R. K. (ed.), The second language curriculum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 111–135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bridges, W. & Mitchell, S. (2000). Leading transitions: A new model for change. Leader to Leader 16 (Spring 2000), 30–36. http://www.leadertoleader.org/knowledgecenter/journal.aspx?ArticleID=28.Google Scholar
Buchanan, D. A. & Boddy, D. (1992). The expertise of the change agent: Public performance and backstage activity. New York: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Canagarajah, A. S. (1999). Resisting linguistic imperialism in English teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Capelle, R. G. (1979). Changing human systems. Toronto: International Human Systems Institute.Google Scholar
Carless, D. (1997). Managing systemic curriculum change: A critical analysis of Hong Kong's target-oriented curriculum initiative. International Review of Education 43.4, 349–366.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carless, D. (1999). Large-scale curriculum change in Hong Kong. In Kennedy et al. (eds.), 19–28.Google Scholar
Carless, D. (2002). Implementing task-based learning with young learners. ELT Journal 56.4, 389–396.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, R. & Nunan, D. (eds.) (2001). The Cambridge guide to teaching English to speakers of other languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Celani, A. (1994). Assessing the value of English for specific purposes programmes in national development. In Allwright & Waters (eds.), 36–49.Google Scholar
Chin, R. & Benne, K. (1970). General strategies for effecting changes in human systems. In Bennis, W., Benne, K. D. & Chin, R. (eds.), The planning of change. London: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 32–59.Google Scholar
Clark, J. L. (1987). Curriculum renewal in school foreign language learning. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Coleman, H. (1992). Moving the goalposts: Project evaluation in practice. In Alderson & Beretta (eds.), 222–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coleman, H. (ed.) (1996). Society and the language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Cooper, R. (1989). Language planning and social change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Crocker, A. (1987). Notes on project planning and implementation. Presented at a British Council workshop.Google Scholar
Crooks, T. & Crewes, G. (eds.) (1995). Language and development. Denpasar, Bali: Indonesia Australia Language Foundation.Google Scholar
De Lano, L., Riley, L. & Crookes, G. (1994). The meaning of innovation for ESL teachers. System 22.4, 487–496.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donovan, P. (1998). Piloting – a publisher's view. In Tomlinson, B. (ed.), Materials development in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 149–189.Google Scholar
Edge, J. (ed.) (2006). (Re-)locating TESOL in an age of empire. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finney, D. (2002). The ELT curriculum: A flexible model for a changing world. In Richards, J. C. & Renandya, W. A. (eds.), Methodology in language teaching: An anthology of current practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 69–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fullan, M. (1998). Linking change and assessment. In Rea-Dickins & Germaine (eds.), 253–262.Google Scholar
Fullan, M. (2001a). Leading in a culture of change. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Fullan, M. (2001b). The new meaning of educational change (3rd edn.). London: RoutledgeFalmer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fullan, M. & Stiegelbauer, S. (1991). The new meaning of educational change (2nd edn.). London: Cassell.Google Scholar
Godfrey, J., Murray, D. E., Nimmannit, S. & Wirth, M. (2008). Teacher development in Thailand: Differing perspectives. In Murray (ed.), 138–154.Google Scholar
Goh, C. C. M. (1999). Nationwide curriculum innovation: How do we manage? In Kennedy et al. (eds.), 5–18.Google Scholar
Goh, C. C. M. & Tay, M. Y. (2008). Implementing the English language syllabus 2001 in Singapore schools: Interpretations and re-interpretations. In Murray (ed.), 85–107.Google Scholar
Hall, D. R. (1997). Why projects fail. In Kenny & Savage (eds.), 258–267.Google Scholar
Hall, G. E. & Hord, S. M. (2001). Implementing change: Patterns, principles, and potholes. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.Google Scholar
Handy, C. (1984). Taken for granted? Understanding schools as organizations. London: Longman & Schools Council.Google Scholar
Havelock, R. G. (1969). Planning for innovation through dissemination and utilization of knowledge. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for Research on Utilization of Scientific Knowledge Institute for Social Research the University of Michigan.Google Scholar
Hayes, D. (2000). Cascade training and teachers’ professional development. ELT Journal 54.2, 135–145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henrichsen, L. E. (1989). Diffusion of innovations in English language teaching: The ELEC effort in Japan, 1956–1968. New York: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
Hlew, A. (1995). Counterpart training and sustainaibility: Effecting an exchange of skills. In Crooks & Crewes (eds.), 76–82.Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. H. (1991). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. London: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Holliday, A. (1992). Tissue rejection and informal orders in ELT projects: Collecting the right information. Applied Linguistics 13.4, 403–424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holliday, A. (1994a). Appropriate methodology and social context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Holliday, A. (1994b). The house of TESEP and the communicative approach: The special needs of state English language education. ELT Journal 48.1, 3–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holliday, A. (1996a). Developing a sociological imagination: Expanding ethnography in international English language education. Applied Linguistics 17.2, 234–255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holliday, A. (1996b). Large- and small-class cultures in Egyptian university classrooms: A cultural justification for curriculum change. In Coleman (ed.), 86–104.Google Scholar
Holliday, A. (1999). Achieving cultural continuity in curriculum innovation. In Kennedy (ed.), 23–31.Google Scholar
Holliday, A. (2005). The struggle to teach English as an international language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hollingworth, A. & Spencer, S. (1997). The shock of the new. In Kenny & Savage (eds.), 74–87.Google Scholar
Howatt, A. (1984). A history of English language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hu, G. (2002). Potential cultural resistance to pedagogical imports: The case of communicative language teaching in China. Language, Culture and Curriculum 15.2, 93–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huberman, A. M. (1973). Understanding change in education. Paris: Unesco.Google Scholar
Hutchinson, T. (1991). The management of change. The Teacher Trainer 5.3, 19–21.Google Scholar
Hutchinson, T. & Hutchinson, E. G. (1996). The textbook as agent of change. In Hedge, T. & Whitney, N. (eds.), Power, pedagogy and practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 307–323.Google Scholar
Ingvarson, L., Meiers, M. & Beavis, A. (2005). Factors affecting the impact of professional development programs on teachers’ knowledge, practice, student outcomes & efficacy. Education Policy Analysis Archives 13.10, 1–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, J., Piper, T. & Yildiz, N. (1997). A Chinese initiative. In Kenny & Savage (eds.), 178–190.Google Scholar
Karavas-Doukas, K. (1998). Evaluating the implementation of educational innovations: Lessons from the past. In Rea-Dickins & Germaine (eds.), 25–50.Google Scholar
Katz, D., Byrkun, L. & Sullivan, P. (2008). Challenges in translating change into practice: Textbook development in Ukraine. In Murray (ed.), 43–61.Google Scholar
Kelly, P. (1980). From innovation to adaptability: The changing perspective of curriculum development. In Galton, M. (ed.), Curriculum change: The lessons of a decade. Leicester: Leicester University Press, 65–80.Google Scholar
Kennedy, C. (1987). Innovating for a change. ELT Journal 41.3, 163–170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, C. (1988). Evaluation of the management of change in ELT projects. Applied Linguistics 9.4, 329–342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, C. (1997). Training trainers as change agents. In McGrath, I. (ed.), Learning to train: Perspectives on the development of language teacher trainers. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall, 127–139.Google Scholar
Kennedy, C. (1999a). Introduction – learning to change. In Kennedy et al. (eds.), iv–viii.Google Scholar
Kennedy, C. (1999b). National change. In Kennedy et al. (eds.), 1–4.Google Scholar
Kennedy, C. (ed.) (1999c). Innovation and best practice. Harlow: Longman.Google Scholar
Kennedy, C., Doyle, P. & Goh, C. [C. M.] (eds.) (1999). Exploring change in English language teaching. Oxford: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Kennedy, C. & Kennedy, J. (1996). Teacher attitudes and change implementation. System 24.1, 351–360.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, D. (1999). The foreign trainer as change agent and implications for teacher education programmes in China. In Kennedy et al. (eds.), 29–37.Google Scholar
Kennedy, J. & Kennedy, C. (1998). Levels, linkages, and networks in cross-cultural innovation. System 26.4, 455–469.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kenny, B. & Savage, W. (eds.) (1997). Language and development: Teachers in a changing world. Harlow: Longman.Google Scholar
Keranen, N. (2008). A multi-theoretical approach to understanding and explaining research engagement by university ELT staff. Ph.D. thesis, Lancaster University.Google Scholar
Kinzley, S. in progress. The impact of a university pre-sessional course on the academic writing behaviours of a group of Chinese undergraduate students studying for a degree in media and cultural studies. Ph.D. thesis, Lancaster University.Google Scholar
Klippel, F. (2008). New prospects or imminent danger? The impact of English medium instruction on education in Germany. In Murray (ed.), 26–42.Google Scholar
Kouraogo, P. (1987). Curriculum renewal and INSET in difficult circumstances. ELT Journal 41.3, 171–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krashen, S. D. & Terrell, T. D. (1988). The natural approach: Language acquisition in the classroom. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Kumaravadivelu, K. (2006). Dangerous liaison: Globalization, empire and TESOL. In Edge (ed.), 1–26.Google Scholar
Lamb, M. (1995). The consequences of INSET. ELT Journal 49.1, 72–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lambright, W. & Flynn, P. (1980). The role of local bureaucracy-centered coalitions. In Agnew, J. (ed.), Innovation research and public policy. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.Google Scholar
Lamie, J. M. (2004). Presenting a model of change. Language Teaching Research 8.2, 115–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lamie, J. M. (2005). Evaluating change in English language teaching. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, K. W. (2007). An investigation of the implementation of the Malaysian ‘SMART’ school project. Ph.D. thesis, Lancaster University.Google Scholar
Li, D. (1998). ‘It's always more difficult than you plan and imagine’: Teachers’ perceived difficulties in introducing the communicative approach in South Korea. TESOL Quarterly 32.4, 677–703.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mackay, R., Wellesley, S., Tasman, D. & Bazergan, E. (1998). Using institutional self-evaluation to promote the quality of language and communication training programmes. In Rea-Dickins & Germaine (eds.), 111–131.Google Scholar
Malderez, A. & Bodóczky, C. (1999). Mentor courses: A resource book for trainer-trainers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Markee, N. (1992). The diffusion of innovation in language teaching. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 13, 229–243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Markee, N. (1997). Managing curricular innovation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Marpaung, M. P. & Kirk, T. (1997). Sustaining a project. In Kenny & Savage (eds.), 241–257.Google Scholar
Marris, P. (1974). Loss and change. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Martin, W. M. & Balabanis, L. P. (1995). Team development of ELT projects: A case study. In Crooks & Crewes (eds.), 16–30.Google Scholar
Mason, R. & Mitroff, I. (1984). A teleological power-oriented theory of strategy. In Bennis, W. G., Benne, K. D. & Chin, R. (eds.), The planning of change (4th edn.). London: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 215–223.Google Scholar
Matsuda, A. (2006). Negotiating ELT assumptions in EIL classrooms. In Edge (ed.), 158–170.Google Scholar
McGovern, J. (1995). Changing paradigms: The project approach. In Crooks & Crewes (eds.), 3–15.Google Scholar
Medgyes, P. (1994). Donor and recipient priorities. In Allwright & Waters (eds.), 77–96.Google Scholar
Medgyes, P. & Malderez, A. (eds.) (1996). Changing perspectives in teacher education. Oxford: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Morrow, K. (ed.) (2005). Insights from the Common European Framework. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Murni, D. & Spencer, S. (1997). Consultants and counterparts. In Kenny & Savage (eds.), 218–230.Google Scholar
Murray, D. E. (2008a). Introduction. In Murray (ed.), 1–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murray, D. E. (ed.) (2008b). Planning change, changing plans: Innovations in second language teaching. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nunan, D. (2003). The impact of English as a global language on educational policies and practices in the Asia-Pacific region. TESOL Quarterly 37.4, 589–613.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Sullivan, M. (2004). The reconceptualisation of learner-centred approaches: A Namibian case study. International Journal of Educational Development 24.6, 585–602.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parsons, C. & Fidler, B. (2005). A new theory of educational change – punctuated equilibrium: The case of the internationalisation of higher education institutions. British Journal of Educational Studies 53.4, 447–465.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pennycook, A. (1994). The cultural politics of English as an international language. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Prabhu, N. S. (1987). Second language pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Prapaisit de Segovia, L. & Hardison, D. M. (2009). Implementing education reform: EFL teachers’ perspectives. ELT Journal 63.2, 154–162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rea-Dickins, P. & Germaine, K. P. (eds.) (1998a). Managing evaluation and innovation in language teaching: Building bridges. Harlow: Longman.Google Scholar
Rea-Dickins, P. & Germaine, K. P. (1998b). The price of everything and value of nothing: Trends in language programme evaluation. In Rea-Dickins & Germaine (eds.), 3–24.Google Scholar
Richards, J. C. (1984). The secret life of methods. TESOL Quarterly 18.1, 7–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richards, J. C. & Pennington, M. (1998). The first year of teaching. In J. C. Richards (ed.), Beyond training. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 173–190.Google Scholar
Roberts, J. (1998). Language teacher education: The reflective trainer. New York: Arnold.Google Scholar
Rogers, E. M. (1983). Diffusion of innovations (3rd edn.). New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th edn.). New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Rogers, E. M. & Shoemaker, F. F. (1971). Communication of innovations: A cross-cultural approach (2nd edn.). New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Sakui, K. (2004). Wearing two pairs of shoes: Language teaching in Japan. ELT Journal 58.2, 155–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanders, J. R. (ed.) (1992). Evaluating school programs: An educator's guide. Newbury Park, CA: Corwin Press.Google Scholar
Scott, C. D. & Jaffe, D. T. (1990). Managing organisational change: A guide for managers. London: Kogan Page.Google Scholar
Shamim, F. (1996). Learner resistance to innovation in classroom methodology. In Coleman (ed.), 105–121.Google Scholar
Skilbeck, M. (1982). Three educational ideologies. In Horton, T. & Raggat, P. (eds.), Challenge and change in the curriculum. Sevenoaks: Hodder and Stoughton, 28–41.Google Scholar
Smith, H. (1995). Power and sustainability in language-related development projects. In Crooks & Crewes (eds.), 65–75.Google Scholar
Smith, H. (1997). Donors and recipients. In Kenny & Savage (eds.), 208–217.Google Scholar
Stoller, F. L. (1994). The diffusion of innovations in intensive ESL programs. Applied Linguistics 15.3, 300–327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomlinson, B. (1988). In-service TEFL: Is it worth the risk? The Teacher Trainer 2.2, 17–19.Google Scholar
Tomlinson, B. (1990). Managing change in Indonesian high schools. ELT Journal 44.1, 25–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trowler, P. R. (2003). Education policy (2nd edn.). London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wall, D. (1996). Introducing new tests into traditional systems: Insights from general education and from innovation theory. Language Testing 13.3, 334–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wall, D. (1999). The impact of high-stakes examinations on classroom teaching: A case study using insights from testing and innovation theory. Ph.D. thesis, Lancaster University.Google Scholar
Wall, D. (2000). The impact of high-stakes testing on teaching and learning: Can this be predicted or controlled? System 28.4, 499–509.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wall, D. (2005). The impact of high-stakes examinations on classroom teaching: A case study using insights from testing and innovation theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wallace, M. J. (1991). Training foreign language teachers: A reflective approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Waters, A. (1997). Managing ESP curriculum development. ESP Malaysia, 3.1, 1–11.Google Scholar
Waters, A. (2002). In-service teacher learning in ELT projects and programmes: An integrated approach. Ph.D. thesis, Lancaster University.Google Scholar
Waters, A. (2005). Expertise in teacher education: Helping teachers to learn. In Johnson, K. (ed.), Expertise in second language learning and teaching. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 210–229.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waters, A. (2006). Facilitating follow-up in ELT INSET. Language Teaching Research 10.1, 32–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waters, A. (2007). ELT and the spirit of the times. ELT Journal 61.4, 353–359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waters, A. (2009a). Advances in materials design. In Long, M. H. & Doughty, C. J. (eds.), The handbook of language teaching. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 311–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waters, A. (2009b). Ideology in applied linguistics for language teaching. Applied Linguistics 30.1, 138–143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waters, A. & Vilches, M. L. C. (2001). Implementing ELT innovations: A needs analysis framework. ELT Journal 55.2, 133–141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waters, A. & Vilches, M. L. C. (2008). Factors affecting ELT reforms: The case of the Philippines Basic Education Curriculum. RELC Journal 39.1, 5–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watson Todd, R. (2006). Continuing change after the innovation. System 34.1, 1–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wedell, M. (2003). Giving TESOL change a chance: Supporting key players in the curriculum change process. System 31.4, 439–456.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wedell, M. (2009). Planning for educational change – putting people and their contexts first. London: Continuum.Google Scholar
Weir, C. J. (1995). The role of insiders and outsiders in evaluating English language programmes and projects. In Crooks & Crewes (eds.), 31–44.Google Scholar
Weir, C. J. & Roberts, J. T. (1994). Evaluation in ELT. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
West, M. A. & Farr, J. L. (1990). Innovation and creativity at work: Psychological and organizational strategies. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
White, R. V. (1988). The ELT curriculum: Design, innovation, and management. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
White, R. V., Martin, M., Stimson, M. & Hodge, R. (1991). Management in English language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Widdowson, H. G. (1992). Innovation in teacher development. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 13, 260–275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Widdowson, H. G. (2000). On the limitations of linguistics applied. Applied Linguistics 21.1, 3–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, M. & Burden, R. (1994). The role of evaluation in ELT project design. ELT Journal 48.1, 22–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodhall, M. (1994). Measuring the impact of aid projects. In Allwright & Waters (eds.), 50–65.Google Scholar
Young, R. & Lee, S. (1984). EFL curriculum innovation and teachers’ attitudes. In Larson, P., Judd, E. & Messerschmidt, D. (eds.), On TESOL 1984: A brave new world of TESOL. Alexandria, VA: TESOL, 184–194.Google Scholar