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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 10 June 2025
1 Representative recent works on the subject include Kōji, Suga, Nihon tōchika no kaigai jinja (Tokyo: Kōbundō, 2011)Google Scholar; and Masaaki, Aono, Teikoku shintō no keisei: shokuminchi Chōsen to kokka shintō no ronri (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 2015).Google Scholar
2 Relevant studies will be introduced in more detail below, but an important moment in the development of this line of enquiry in English was Richard Jaffe (ed.), ‘Religion and the Japanese empire’, Special issue, Journal of Japanese Religious Studies, no. 37, 2010.
3 See Duus, Peter, Myers, Ramon H. and Peattie, Mark R. (eds), Japan’s wartime empire, 1931–1945 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
4 Jidong, Chen, ‘Kindai bukkyō no yoake’, Shisō, no. 943, November 2002.Google Scholar
5 Suwa Gijō, ‘Tairiku ni okeru Tani Ryōzenshi no kaikyō katsudō’, Dōhō gakuō, no. 22, 1970; Akeshi, Kiba, ‘Higashi honganji Chūgoku ni okeru kyōiku jigyō’, Shinshū kenkyū, no. 34, 1990, p. Google Scholar; Jianyun, Liu, ‘Shinmatsu Chūgoku ni okeru higashi honganji no tōbun gakudō’, Okayama daigaku daigakuin bunkaka kiyō, no. 10, November 2000, pp. 125–137.Google Scholar
6 Saburō, Satō, Kindai Nitchū kōshō no kenkyū (Tokyo: Yoshikawa kōbunkan, 1984), pp. 236–239.Google Scholar
7 Jianyun, Liu, ‘Shinmatsu Chūgoku ni okeru Higashi Honganji no tōbun gakudō’, Okayama daigaku daigakuin bunka kagaku kenkyūka kiyō, no. 10, 2000, pp. 134–137.Google Scholar
8 Saburō, Satō, ‘Chūgoku ni okeru Nihon bukkyō no fukyōken wo megutte’, Yamagata daigaku kiyō jinbun kagaku, vol. 5, no. 4, 1964, pp. 257–258.Google Scholar
9 Masamichi, Ogawara, ‘Taika nijūikka yōkyū to bukkyō’, Kindai bukkyō, no. 20, 2013.Google Scholar
10 There is an expanding corpus of literature now about Japanese Buddhism in Japan’s colonies in both Japanese and English. See, for example, Naoki, Nakanishi, Shokuminchi Taiwan to Nihon bukkyō (Kyoto: Sanninsha, 2016)Google Scholar; Naoki, Nakanishi, Shokuminchi Chōsen to Nihon bukkyō (Kyoto: Sanninsha, 2013)Google Scholar; Kim, Hwansoo, The Korean Buddhist empire: A transnational history (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Jones, Charles B., Buddhism in Taiwan: religion and the state, 1660–1990 (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1999).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
11 Jidong, Chen, Shinmatsu bukkyō no kenkyū: Yō Bunkai wo chūshin toshite (Tokyo: Sankibō shoten, 2003).Google Scholar
12 Ibid.
13 On the esoteric revival during the Republican era and the Japanese impact on it, see, for example, Schicketanz, Erik, Daraku to fukkō no kindai Chūgoku bukkyō: Nihon bukkyō to no kaikō to sono rekishizō no kōsaku (Kyoto: Hōzōkan, 2016)Google Scholar. See also the recently published volume by Wei, Wu, Esoteric Buddhism in China: Engaging Japanese and Tibetan traditions, 1912–1949 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2024)Google Scholar, which touches on the interaction of Han Chinese Buddhists with Tibetan Buddhists.
14 See Schicketanz, Daraku to fukkō no kindai Chūgoku bukkyō, Chapter 1.
15 Relations to Theravada Buddhism were more complex, as shown in Richard Jaffe’s work. See, for instance, Jaffe, Richard, Seeking Sakyamuni: South Asia in the formation of modern Japanese Buddhism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2019).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
16 Stone, Jacqueline, ‘A vast and grave task: Interwar Buddhist studies as an expression of Japan’s envisioned global role’, in Culture and identity: Japanese intellectuals during the interwar years, (ed.) Rimer, J. Thomas (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990).Google Scholar
17 Ogawara Masamichi has edited a volume that covers some of these Buddhist adventurers from the period of Buddhist overseas engagement prior to the wartime empire. Masamichi, Ogawara (ed.), Kindai Nihon no bukkyōsha—Ajia taiken to shisō no henyō (Tokyo: Keiō gijuku daigaku shuppankai, 2010).Google Scholar
18 Yūdai, Kawabe, ‘Kitakata Shinsen Chūgoku taiken to sho no juyō ni tsuite’, in ibid.Google Scholar
19 For a detailed discussion of Mizuno’s life, see Shinobu, Tsujimura, ‘Kindai Nihon bukkyō to Chūgoku bukkyō no aida de—fukyōshi Mizuno Baigyō wo chūshin ni’, Kokka to shūkyō, vol. 1, (eds) Jian, Xi and Tanaka, (Kyoto: Hōzōkan, 2008).Google Scholar
20 See, for example, Baigyō, Mizuno, ‘Shinkoku no genjō to Nihon bukkyōto no kakugo’, Chūgai nippō, 21 August 1911.Google Scholar
21 Hironaka Kazunari, ‘Nihon no Chūgoku shinryaku to Mizuno Baigyō’, Aichi daigaku kokusai mondai kenkyūjo kiyō, no. 146, November 2015, pp. 39–62. See also Justin B. Stein, ‘Japanese imperialism and the Chinese delegation to the Second General Conference of Pan-Pacific Young Buddhists’ Associations (1934)’, in this Forum.
22 Notable contributions include Deegalle, Mahinda, Buddhism, conflict and violence in modern Sri Lanka (Abingdon: Routledge, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Jerryson, Michael and Juergensmeyer, Mark (eds), Buddhist warfare (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Jerryson, Michael K., Buddhist fury: Religion and violence in southern Thailand (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lehr, Peter, Militant Buddhism: The rise of religious violence in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Thailand (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
23 See, for instance, Hakugen, Ichikawa, Bukkyōsha no sensō sekinin (Tokyo: Shunjusha, 1970)Google Scholar; Kyōtoku, Nakano, Tennōsei kokka to shokuminchi dendō (Tokyo: Kokusho kankōkai, 1976)Google Scholar; as well as Kyōtoku, Nakano, Senjika no bukkyō (Tokyo: Kokusho kankōkai, 1977)Google Scholar. For a study on Ichikawa Hakugen’s thought and critique of wartime Buddhism, see Ives, Chrisopher, Imperial-way Zen: Ichikawa Hakugen’s critique and lingering questions for Buddhist ethics (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2009).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
24 Historians such as Ōkuwa Hitoshi have gone so far as to argue that Buddhism played a central role in how the Tokugawa conceived of their rule. Hitoshi, Ōkuwa, Kinsei no ōken to bukkyō (Kyoto: Shibunkaku shuppan, 2015).Google Scholar
25 See, for example, Ketelaar, James, Of heretics and martyrs in Meiji Japan: Buddhism and its persecution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
26 Colcutt, Martin, ‘Buddhism: The danger of extinction’, in Japan in transition: From Tokugawa to Meiji, (eds) Jansen, Marius B. and Rozman, Gilbert (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986).Google Scholar
27 Atsumichi, Kobayashi, Kindai bukkyō kyōdan to sensō (Kyoto: Hōzōkan, 2022), p. .Google Scholar
28 Eisui, Nose, ‘Kindai Shinsh Honganjia no jūgun fukyō katsudō’, Indo tetsugaku bukkyōgaku kenkyū, vol. 63, no. 1, 2015.Google Scholar
29 Masamichi, Ogawara, Nihon no sensō to shūkyō 1899–1945 (Tokyo: Kōdansha, 2014) p. .Google Scholar
30 Eiichi, Ōtani, ‘Sensō kyōryoku to teikō’, in Kindai Nihon shūkyōshi, (eds) Susumu, Shimazono, Fumihiko, Sueki, Eiichi, Ōtani and Akira, Nishimura (Tokyo: Shunjūsha, 2021), vol. 4, pp. 111–112.Google Scholar
31 For efforts to recruit Tibetan Buddhists in Manchuria and Mongolia, see Narangoa, Li, Japanische Religionspolitik in der Mongolei 1932–1945 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1998)Google Scholar. The main research findings are summarized in English in Narangoa, Li, ‘Japanese imperialism and Mongolian Buddhism, 1932–1945’, Critical Asian Studies, vol. 35, 2003CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For Buddhist organizations in occupied Manchuria, see Akashi, Kiba and Shuwei, Cheng (eds), Nitchū ryōgoku no shiten kara kataru shokuminchi Manshū no shūkyō (Tokyo: Kashiwa shōbo, 2007).Google Scholar
32 Victoria, Brian, Zen at war (New York: Weatherhill, 1997).Google Scholar
33 Ives, Imperial-way Zen, p. 19.
34 Kazunobu, Niino, Kōdō bukkyō to tairiku fukyō (Tokyo: Shakai hyōronsha, 2014).Google Scholar
35 See, for instance, Satoshi, Daitō, Sensō ha zaiaku dearu: hansen sōryo Takenaka Shōgen no hankotsu (Nagoya: Fūbaisha, 2008)Google Scholar; as well as ‘Han-sen, han-fashizumu no bukkyō shakai undō: Sen’o Girō to shinkō bukkyō seinen dōmei’, in Ei’ichi, Ōtani, Kindai bukkyō to iu shiza: sensō, Ajia, shakai shugi (Tokyo: Perikansha, 2012).Google Scholar
36 Brook, Timothy, Collaboration: Japanese agents and local elites in wartime China (Harvard, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
37 An excellent example is Tomohide, Seki, Tainichi kyōryokusha no seiji kōsō: Nitch sensō to sono zengo (Nagoya: Nagoya daigaku shuppansha, 2019).Google Scholar In English, the recent Forum ‘Mediating collaborationism: Cosmopolitanism, Asianism, and the recounting of history’, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 58 no. 1, 2024, is an excellent example of scholarship engaging with similar issues.
38 The concept of the ‘grey zone’ has a complex genealogy going back to the writings of Primo Levi. The term is used here less in a strict sense as part of this genealogy, but rather as a lens through which to investigate the complexities and ambiguities that existed in the Japanese-occupied zones. The use of the concept of the grey zone here is maybe closest to the usage employed by Poshek, Fu, Resistance, passivity, and collaboration: Intellectual choices in occupied Shanghai, 1937–1945 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995).Google Scholar
39 For more information about this, see Jaffe, Richard, Neither monk nor layman: Clerical marriage in modern Japanese Buddhism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002).CrossRefGoogle Scholar