Hostname: page-component-5b777bbd6c-gtgcz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-06-19T08:59:22.403Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Predation defeats competition on the seafloor

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 April 2016

Steven M. Stanley
Steven M. Stanley*
Affiliation:
Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Hawaii, 701 POST Building, 1680 East-West Road, Honolulu, Hawai'i 96822. E-mail: stevenst@hawaii.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

… the snail, whose tender horns being hit Shrinks backward in his shelly cave with pain, And there, all smothered up, in shade doth sit, Long after fearing to creep forth again….

— William Shakespeare, Venus and Adonis (1593)

For many decades, ecology textbooks presented classical competition theory without reservation. The central principle here is that two species sharing an essential resource that is in limited supply cannot coexist for long because the competitively superior species will eliminate the other one. The implication is that ecological communities should be characterized by division of resources among species, or niche partitioning. Thus, it is understandable that many paleontologists have continued to invoke concepts of competitive exclusion and niche partitioning in their studies of ancient guilds and communities. By now, however, there is a large body of neontological literature demonstrating that interspecific competition and resource partitioning play only a minor role in many ecological communities—especially benthic marine communities, which are the primary focus of the following discussion. Predation and physical disturbance inflict so much damage on biotas of the seafloor that populations of one species seldom monopolize a potentially limiting resource, except sporadically and locally. As a result, it is uncommon for any species to drive another to extinction through competitive exclusion—or even to force another species to drastically change its exploitation of any environmental resource throughout its geographic range. Furthermore, what particular species or group of species occupies a particular microhabitat is often simply a matter of time of arrival.

Type
Matters of the Record
Information
Paleobiology , Volume 34 , Issue 1 , Winter 2008 , pp. 1 - 21
Copyright
Copyright © The Paleontological Society 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Literature Cited

Ambrose, R. F., and Nelson, B. V. 1983. Predation by Octopus vulgaris in the Mediterranean. Marine Ecology 4:251–261.Google Scholar
Appeldoorn, R. S. 1984. The effect of size on mortality of small juvenile conchs (Strombus gigas and S. costatus Gmelin). Journal of Shellfish Research 4:37–43.Google Scholar
Ausich, W. I. 1980. A model for niche differentiation in lower Mississippian crinoid communities. Journal of Paleontology 54:273–288.Google Scholar
Bambach, R. K. 1993. Seafood through time: changes in biomass, energetics, and productivity in the marine ecosystem. Paleobiology 19:372–397.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beal, B. F., Parker, M. R., and Vencile, K. W. 2001. Seasonal effects of intraspecific density and predator exclusion along a shore-level gradient on survival and growth of juveniles of the soft-shell clam, Mya arenaria L., in Maine, USA. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 264:133–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell, S. S., and Coull, B. C. 1978. Field evidence that shrimp predation regulates meiofauna. Oecologia 35:141–148.Google Scholar
Benton, M. J. 1987. Progress and competition in macroevolution. Biological Reviews 62:305–338.Google Scholar
Blegvad, H. 1928. Quantitative investigations of bottom invertebrates in the Limfjord 1910–1927 with special reference to the plaice food. Reports of the Danish Biological Station 34:33–52.Google Scholar
Bonuso, N., Newton, C. R., Brower, J. C., and Ivany, L. C. 2002. Statistical testing of community patterns: uppermost Hamilton Group, Middle Devonian (New York State: USA). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 185:1–24.Google Scholar
Brett, C. E., and Baird, G. C. 1995. Coordinated stasis and evolutionary ecology of Silurian to Middle Devonian faunas in the Appalachian Basin. Pp. 285–315in Erwin, D. H. and Anstey, R. L., eds. New approaches to speciation in the fossil record. Columbia University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Brown, W. L. Jr., and Wilson, E. O. 1956. Character displacement. Systematic Zoology 5:49–64.Google Scholar
Buss, L. W., and Jackson, J. B. C. 1979. Competitive networks: nontransitive competitive relationships in cryptic coral reef environments. American Naturalist 113:223–234.Google Scholar
Buss, L. W., and Jackson, J. B. C. 1981. Planktonic food availability and suspension-feeder abundance: evidence of in situ depletion. Journal of Experimental Biology and Ecology 49:151–161.Google Scholar
Buzas, M. A. 1978. Foraminifera as prey for benthic deposit feeders: results of predator exclusion experiments. Journal of Marine Research 36:617–625.Google Scholar
Buzas, M. A., and Culver, S. J. 2001. On the relationship between species distribution-abundance-occurrence. Historical Biology 15:151–159.Google Scholar
Carbone, C., and Gittleman, J. L. 2002. A common rule for the scaling of carnivore density. Science 295:2273–2276.Google Scholar
Choat, J. H., and Andrew, N. L. 1986. Interactions amongst species in a guild of subtidal benthic herbivores. Oecologia 68:387–394.Google Scholar
Connell, J. H. 1961a. Effects of competition, predation by Thais lapillus, and other factors on natural populations of the barnacle Balanus balanoides. Ecological Monographs 40:49–78.Google Scholar
Connell, J. H. 1961b. The influence of interspecific competition on the distribution of the barnacle Chthamalus stellatus. Ecology 42:710–723.Google Scholar
Connell, J. H. 1978. Diversity in tropical rain forest and coral reefs. Science 199:1302–1310.Google Scholar
Connell, J. H., Hughes, T. P., and Wallace, C. C. 1997. A 30-year study of coral abundance, recruitment, and disturbance at several scales in space and time. Ecological Monographs 67:461–488.Google Scholar
Crampton, J. S., Foote, M., Beu, A. G., Maxwell, P. A., Cooper, R. A., Matcham, I., Marshall, B. A., and Jones, C. M. 2006. The ark was full! Constant to declining Cenozoic shallow marine biodiversity on an isolated midlatitude continent. Paleobiology 32:509–532.Google Scholar
Cruz-Rivera, E., and Paul, V. J. 2002. Coral reef benthic cyanobacteria as food and refuge: diversity, chemistry and complex interactions. Pp. 515–520in Moosa, M. K., Soemodihardjo, S., Soegiarto, A., Romimohtarto, K., Nontji, A., and Suharsono, S., eds. Proceedings of the Ninth International Coral Reef Symposium. International Society for Reef Studies, Bali.Google Scholar
Dahlgren, C. P., Posey, M. H., and Hulbert, A. W. 1999. The effects of bioturbation on the infaunal community adjacent to an offshore hardbottom reef. Bulletin of Marine Science 64:21–34.Google Scholar
Darwin, C. 1859. On the origin of species by means of natural selection or the preservation of favored races in the struggle for life. J. Murray, London.Google Scholar
Dayton, P. K. 1971. Competition, disturbance, and community organization: the provisions and subsequent utilization of space in a rocky intertidal community. Ecological Monographs 41:351–389.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dexter, R. W. 1947. The marine communities of a tidal inlet at Cape Ann, Massachusetts: a study in bio-ecology. Ecological Monographs 17:269–294.Google Scholar
Droser, M. L. 1993. Trends and patterns of Phanerozoic ichnofabrics. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 21:205–225.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duda, T. F., Kohn, A. J., and Palumbi, S. R. 2001. Origin of diverse feeding ecologies within Conus, a genus of venomous marine gastropods. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 73:391–409.Google Scholar
Duda, T. F., and Palumbi, S. R. 2000. Evolutionary diversification of multigene families: allelic selection of toxins in predatory cone shells. Molecular Biology and Evolution 17:1286–1293.Google Scholar
Duda, T. F., and Palumbi, S. R. 2004. Gene expression and feeding ecology: evolution of piscivory in the venomous gastropod genus Conus. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 271:1165–1174.Google Scholar
Duggan, W. P. 1973. Growth and survival of the bay scallop, Argopecten irradians, at various locations in the water column and at various densities. Proceedings of the National Shellfisheries Association 63:68–71.Google Scholar
Dustan, P., and Sacco, W. K. 1982. The sclerosponges of Chalet Caribe Reef. Discovery 16:13–17.Google Scholar
Fernandez, E. M., Lin, J., and Scarpa, J. 1999. Culture of Mercenaria mercenaria (Linnaeus): effects of density, predator exclusion device, and bag inversion. Journal of Shellfish Research 18:77–83.Google Scholar
Gause, G. F. 1934. The struggle for existence. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Giangrande, A., Geraci, S., and Belmonte, G. 1994. Life-cycle and life-history diversity in marine invertebrates and the implications in community dynamics. In Ansell, A. D., Gibson, R. N., and Barnes, M., eds. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review 32: 3-5-333. UCL Press, London.Google Scholar
Gould, S. J., and Calloway, C. B. 1980. Clams and brachiopods—ships that pass in the night? Paleobiology 6:383–396.Google Scholar
Grassle, J. F., and Morse-Porteous, L. S. 1987. Macrofaunal colonization of disturbed deep-sea environments and the structure of deep-sea benthic communities. Deep-Sea Research 34:1911–1950.Google Scholar
Green, R. H. 1971. A multivariate statistical approach to the Hutchinsonian niche: bivalve molluscs of central Canada. Ecology 52:543–556.Google Scholar
Hallam, A. 1992. Phanerozoic sea-level change. Columbia University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Hallock, P. 1987. Fluctuations in the trophic resource continuum: a factor in global diversity cycles? Paleoceanography 2:457–471.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hansen, T. A. 1978. Larval dispersal and species longevity in lower Tertiary gastropods. Science 199:885–887.Google Scholar
Hawkins, S. J., and Hartnoll, R. G. 1983. Grazing of intertidal algae by marine invertebrates. In Barnes, M., ed. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review 21:195–282. Aberdeen University Press, Aberdeen, U.K.Google Scholar
Herbert, S. 1971. Darwin, Malthus, and selection. Journal of the History of Biology 4:209–217.Google Scholar
Hermoyian, C. S., Leighton, L. R., and Kaplan, P. 2002. Testing the role of competition in fossil communities using limiting similarity. Geology 30:15–18.Google Scholar
Hubbell, S. P. 2001. A unified neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeography. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.Google Scholar
Hutchinson, G. E. 1951. Review: copepodology for the ornithologist. Ecology 32:571–577.Google Scholar
Hutchinson, G. E. 1957. Concluding remarks. Cold Spring Harbor Symposium on Quantitative Biology 22:415–427.Google Scholar
Hutchinson, G. E. 1959. Homage to Santa Rosalia or why are there so many kinds of animals? American Naturalist 93:145–159.Google Scholar
Jablonski, D. 1986. Larval ecology and macroevolution of marine invertebrates. Bulletin of Marine Science 39:565–587.Google Scholar
Jablonski, D., Flessa, W., and Valentine, J. W. 1985. Biogeography and paleobiology. Paleobiology 11:75–90.Google Scholar
Jackson, J. B. C., Goreau, T. F., and Hartman, W. D. 1971. Recent brachiopod-coralline sponge communities and their paleoecological significance. Science 173:623–625.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jensen, K. T., and Jensen, J. N. 1985. The importance of some epibenthic predators on the density of juvenile benthic macro-fauna in the Danish Wadden Sea. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 89:157–174.Google Scholar
Kabat, A. R. 1990. Predatory ecology of naticid gastropods with a review of shell boring predation. Malacologia 32:155–193.Google Scholar
Kanaya, G., Nobata, E., Toya, T., and Kikuchi, E. 2005. Effects of different feeding habits of three bivalve species on sediment characteristics and benthic diatom abundance. Marine Ecology Progress Series 299:67–78.Google Scholar
Kemp, P. F. 1990. The fate of benthic bacterial production. Reviews of Aquatic Science 2:109–124.Google Scholar
Knoll, A. H. 1994. Proterozoic and Early Cambrian protists: evidence for accelerating evolutionary tempo. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 91:6743–6750.Google Scholar
Kohn, A. J. 1990. Tempo and mode of evolution in Conidae. Malacologia 32:55–67.Google Scholar
Kohn, A. J. 2001. Maximal species richness in Conus: diversity, diet, and habitat on reefs of northeast Papua New Guinea. Coral Reefs 20:25–38.Google Scholar
Kowalewski, M., Dulai, A., and Fürsich, F. T. 1998. A fossil record full of holes: the Phanerozoic history of drilling predation. Geology 26:1091–1094.Google Scholar
LaBarbera, M. 1981. The ecology of Mesozoic Gryphaea, Exogyra, and Ilymatogyra (Bivalvia: Mollusca) in a modern ocean. Paleobiology 7:510–526.Google Scholar
Lack, D. L. 1947. Darwin's finches. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Lack, D. L. 1954. The natural regulation of animal numbers. Clarendon, Oxford.Google Scholar
Lack, D. L. 1971. Ecological isolation in birds. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Lane, N. G. 1963. The Berkeley crinoid collection from Crawfordsville, Indiana. Journal of Paleontology 37:1001–1008.Google Scholar
Lang, J. C., and Chornesky, E. A. 1990. Competition between scleractinian reef corals—a review of mechanisms and effects. Pp. 209–252in Dubinsky, Z., ed. Ecosystems of the world, Vol. 25. Coral reefs. Elsevier, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Lehane, C., and Davenport, J. 2002. Ingestion of mesozooplankton by three species of bivalve; Mytilus edulis, Cerastoderma edule and Aequipecten opercularis. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 82:615–619.Google Scholar
Levinton, J. S., Ward, J. E., and Shumway, S. E. 2002. Feeding responses of the bivalves Crossostrea gigas and Mytilus trossulus to chemical composition of fresh and aged kelp detritus. Marine Biology 141:367–376.Google Scholar
Lotka, A. J. 1925. Elements of physical biology. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore.Google Scholar
Lovejoy, A. O. 1933. The great chain of being: the history of an idea. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Lovvorn, J. R., Cooper, L. W., Brooks, M. L., De Ruyck, C. C., Bump, J. K., and Grebmeier, J. M. 2005. Organic matter pathways to zooplankton and benthos under pack ice in late winter and open water in late summer in the north-central Bering Sea. Marine Ecology Progress Series 291:135–150.Google Scholar
Lowenstam, H. A. 1950. Niagaran reefs of the Great Lakes area. Journal of Geology 58:430–487.Google Scholar
MacArthur, R. H. 1958. Population ecology of some warblers of northeastern coniferous forests. Ecology 39:599–619.Google Scholar
Maguire, B. Jr. 1967. A partial analysis of the niche. American Naturalist 101:515–523.Google Scholar
Mayr, E. 1982. The growth of biological thought. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
McKinney, F. K. 1995. One hundred million years of competitive interactions between bryozoan clades: asymmetrical but not escalating. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 56:465–481.Google Scholar
Meyer, D. L. 1985. Evolutionary implications of predation on Recent comatulid crinoids from the Great Barrier Reef. Paleobiology 11:154–164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer, D. L., and Lane, N. G. 1976. The feeding behavior of some Paleozoic crinoids and Recent basket stars. Journal of Paleontology 50:472–480.Google Scholar
Meyer, D. L., and Macurda, D. B. 1977. Adaptive radiation of the comatulid crinoids. Paleobiology 3:74–82.Google Scholar
Mileikovsky, S. A. 1971. Types of larval development in marine bottom invertebrates, their distribution and ecological significance: a re-evaluation. Marine Biology 10:193–213.Google Scholar
Morris, P. J., Ivany, L. C., Schopf, K. M., and Brett, C. E. 1995. The challenge of paleoecological stasis: reassessing sources of evolutionary stability. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 92:11269–11273.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newell, N. D., Rigby, J. K., Fischer, A. G., Whitman, A. J., Hickox, J. E., and Bradley, J. S. 1953. The Permian reef complex of the Guadalupe Mountains Region, Texas and New Mexico. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Newman, W. A., and Stanley, S. M. 1981. Competition wins out overall: reply to Paine. Paleobiology 7:561–569.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oji, T. 1996. Is predation intensity reduced with increasing depth? Evidence from the west Atlantic stalked crinoid Endoxocrinus parrae (Gervais) and implications for the Mesozoic marine revolution. Paleobiology 22:339–351.Google Scholar
Oliver a, B. M., Rivier, J., Clark, C., Ramilo, C. A., Corpuz, G. P., Abogadie, F. C., Mena, E. E., Woodward, S. R., Hillyard, D. R., and Cruz, L. J. 1990. Diversity of Conus neuropeptides. Science 249:257–263.Google Scholar
Paine, R. T. 1966. Food web complexity and species diversity. American Naturalist 100:65–75.Google Scholar
Paine, R. T. 1981. Disturbance and predation: the evolution and persistence of chthamaloid barnacles. Paleobiology 7:553–560.Google Scholar
Park, T. 1948. Experimental studies of interspecific competition. I. Competition between populations of the flour beetles Tribolium confusum Duval and Tribolium castaneum Herbst. Ecological Monographs 18:265–308.Google Scholar
Pechenik, J. A. 1999. On the advantages and disadvantages of larval stages in benthic marine invertebrate life cycles. Marine Ecology Progress Series 177:269–297.Google Scholar
Peters, S. E. 2005. Geologic constraints on the macroevolutionary history of animals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 102:12326–12331.Google Scholar
Peterson, C. H. 1979. Predation, competitive exclusion, and diversity in the soft-sediment benthic communities of estuaries and lagoons. Pp. 233–264in Livingston, R. J., ed. Ecological processes in coastal and marine systems. Plenum, New York.Google Scholar
Plante, C. J., and Shriver, A. G. 1998. Patterns of differential digestion of bacteria in deposit feeders: a test of resource partitioning. Marine Ecology Progress Series 163:253–258.Google Scholar
Posey, M., Lindberg, W., Alphin, T., and Vose, F. 1996. Influence of storm disturbance on an offshore benthic community. Bulletin of Marine Science 59:523–529.Google Scholar
Raup, D. M. 1979. Size of the Permo-Triassic bottleneck and its evolutionary implications. Science 206:217–218.Google Scholar
Ribes, M., Coma, R., and Rossi, S. 2003. Natural feeding of the temperate asymbiotic octocoral-gorgonian Leptogorgia sarmentosa (Cnidaria: Octocorallia). Marine Ecology Progress Series 254:141–150.Google Scholar
Riisgård, H. U. 1988. Efficiency of particle retention and filtration rate in 6 species of northeast American bivalves. Marine Ecology Progress Series 45:217–223.Google Scholar
Robison, B. H., Reisenbichler, K. R., and Sherlock, R. E. 2005. Giant larvacean houses: rapid carbon transport to the deep sea floor. Science 308:1609–1611.Google Scholar
Rothman, D. H. 2001. Global biodiversity and the ancient carbon cycle. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 98:4305–4310.Google Scholar
Rutman, J., and Fishelson, L. 1969. Food composition and feeding behavior of shallow-water crinoids at Eilat (Red Sea). Marine Biology 3:46–57.Google Scholar
Sale, P. F. 1977. Maintenance of high diversity in coral-reef fish communities. American Naturalist 111:337–359.Google Scholar
Scott, R. W. 1978. Approaches to trophic analysis of paleocommunities. Lethaia 11:1–14.Google Scholar
Sepkoski, J. J. Jr. 1981. A factor analytic description of the Phanerozoic marine fossil record. Paleobiology 7:36–53.Google Scholar
Sepkoski, J. J. Jr. 1984. A kinetic model of Phanerozoic taxonomic diversity. III. Post-Paleozoic families and mass extinctions. Paleobiology 10:246–267.Google Scholar
Sepkoski, J. J. Jr. 1996. Competition in macroevolution: the double wedge revisited. Pp. 211–255in Jablonski, D., Erwin, D. H., and Lipps, J. H., eds. Evolutionary paleobiology. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Sepkoski, J. J. Jr. 2002. A compendium of fossil marine animal genera. Bulletins of American Paleontology 363.Google Scholar
Sepkoski, J. J., McKinney, F. K., and Lidgard, S. 2000. Competitive displacement among post-Paleozoic cyclostome and cheilostome bryozoans. Paleobiology 26:7–18.Google Scholar
Shumway, S. E., Cucci, T. L., Newell, R. C., and Yentsch, C. M. 1985. Particle selection, ingestion, and absorption in filter-feeding bivalves. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 91:77–92.Google Scholar
Signor, P. W. 1990. Patterns of diversification. Pp. 130–135in Briggs, D. E. and Crowther, P. R., eds. Palaeobiology: a synthesis. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford.Google Scholar
Signor, P. W., and Brett, C. E. 1984. The mid-Paleozoic precursor to the Mesozoic marine revolution. Paleobiology 10:229–245.Google Scholar
Sprinkle, J., and Kier, P. M., 1987. Phylum Echinodermata. Pp. 550–611in Boardman, R. S., Cheetham, A. H., and Rowell, A. J., eds. Fossil invertebrates. Blackwell Scientific, Palo Alto, Calif.Google Scholar
Stanley, S. M. 1972. Functional morphology and evolution of byssally attached bivalve mollusks. Journal of Paleontology 46:165–212.Google Scholar
Stanley, S. M. 1973a. An ecological theory for the sudden origin of multicellular life in the Late Precambrian. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 70:1486–1489.Google Scholar
Stanley, S. M. 1973b. Effects of competition on rates of evolution, with special reference to bivalve mollusks and mammals. Systematic Zoology 22:486–506.Google Scholar
Stanley, S. M. 1974. What has happened to the articulate brachiopods? Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 6:966–967.Google Scholar
Stanley, S. M. 1977. Trends, rates, and patterns of evolution in the Bivalvia. Pp. 209–250in Hallam, A., ed. Patterns of evolution, as illustrated by the fossil record. Elsevier, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Stanley, S. M. 1979. Macroevolution: pattern and process. W. H. Freeman, New York.Google Scholar
Stanley, S. M. 1981. The new evolutionary timetable. Basic Books, New York.Google Scholar
Stanley, S. M. 1986. Anatomy of a regional mass extinction: Plio-Pleistocene decimation of the Western Atlantic bivalve fauna. Palaios 1:17–36.Google Scholar
Stanley, S. M. 1990. The general correlation between rate of speciation and rate of extinction: fortuitous causal linkages. Pp. 103–172in Ross, R. M. and Allmon, W. D., eds. Causes of evolution. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Stanley, S. M. 2007. An analysis of the history of marine animal diversity. Paleobiology Memoirs No. 4. Paleobiology 33(Suppl. to No. 4).Google Scholar
Stanley, S. M., and Campbell, L. D. 1981. Neogene mass extinction of Western Atlantic molluscs. Nature 293:457–459.Google Scholar
Stanley, S. M., and Newman, W. A. 1980. Competitive exclusion in evolutionary time: the case of the acorn barnacles. Paleobiology 6:173–183.Google Scholar
Stanton, R. J., and Dodd, J. R. 1976. The application of trophic structure to fossil communities in paleoenvironmental reconstruction. Lethaia 9:327–342.Google Scholar
Steele-Petrovic, H. M. 1976. Brachiopod food and feeding processes. Palaeontology 19:417–436.Google Scholar
Strathmann, R. R. 1978. The evolution and loss of feeding larval stages of marine invertebrates. Evolution 32:894–906.Google Scholar
Sutherland, J. P., and Karlson, R. H. 1977. Development and stability of the fouling community at Beaufort, North Carolina. Ecological Monographs 47:425–446.Google Scholar
Thayer, C. W. 1979. Biological bulldozers and the evolution of marine communities. Science 203:458–461.Google Scholar
Thayer, C. W. 1983. Sediment-mediated biological disturbance and the evolution of marine benthos. Pp. 479–629in Tevesz, M. J. S. and McCall, P. L., eds. Biotic interactions in Recent and fossil benthic communities. Plenum, New York.Google Scholar
Thorson, G. 1966. Some factors influencing the recruitment and establishment of marine benthic communities. Netherlands Journal of Sea Research 3:267–293.Google Scholar
Turpaeva, E. P. 1957. Food interrelationship of dominant species in marine benthic biocoenoses. Pp. 137–148in Nikitin, B. N., ed. Marine biology. Translation of Transactions of the Institute of Oceanology, Vol. XX. USSR Academy of Sciences Press, Moscow. Translated by American Institute of Biological Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1959 (publ. 1960).Google Scholar
Valentine, J. W. 1969. Patterns of taxonomic and ecologic structure of the shelf benthos during Phanerozoic time. Paleontology 12:684–708.Google Scholar
Valentine, J. W. 1971. Plate tectonics and shallow marine diversity and endemism, an actualistic model. Systematic Zoology 20:253–264.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valentine, J. W., Foin, T. C., and Peart, D. 1978. A provincial model of Phanerozoic marine diversity. Paleobiology 4:55–66.Google Scholar
Van Valen, L. 1973. A new evolutionary law. Evolutionary Theory 1:1–30.Google Scholar
Van Valen, L. 1980. Evolution as a zero-sum game for energy. Evolutionary Theory 4:289–300.Google Scholar
Van Valkenburgh, B. 1988. Trophic diversity in past and present guilds of large predatory mammals. Paleobiology 14:155–173.Google Scholar
Vermeij, G. J. 1977. The Mesozoic marine revolution: evidence from snails, predators, and grazers. Paleobiology 3:245–258.Google Scholar
Vermeij, G. J. 1995. Ergonomics, volcanoes, and Phanerozoic revolutions. Paleobiology 21:125–152.Google Scholar
Volterra, V. 1926. Variations and fluctuations of the number of individuals of animal species living together. Pp. 409–448in Chapman, R. N., ed. Animal ecology. McGraw-Hill, New York.Google Scholar
Walker, K. R. 1972. Trophic analysis: a method for studying the function of ancient communities. Journal of Paleontology 46:82–93.Google Scholar
Woodin, S. A. 1976. Adult-larval interactions in dense infaunal assemblages: patterns of abundance. Journal of Marine Research 34:25–42.Google Scholar
Yamamoto, T. 2004. Prey composition and prey selectivity of an intertidal generalist predator, Muricodrupa fusca (Kuester) (Muricidae). Marine Ecology 25:35–49.Google Scholar
Young, D. K., Buzas, M. A., and Young, M. W. 1976. A field experimental study of predation. Journal of Marine Research 34:577–592.Google Scholar
Zaret, T. M. 1972. Predator-prey interactions in a tropical lacustrine ecosystem. Ecology 53:248–257.Google Scholar
Zaret, T. M. 1980. Predation and freshwater communities. Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn.Google Scholar
Zipser, E., and Vermeij, G. J. 1978. Crushing behavior of tropical and temperate crabs. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 31:155–172.Google Scholar