Index

Raúl L. Madrid

doi:10.1017/9781009633802.011

Index

Aceval, Eduardo, 297–298

Acevedo, Eduardo, 149–151

actor-based theories, for democratization, 44

Aguirre, Martín, 161

Além, Leandro, 185–186

Alessandri, Arturo, 145, 146

Alfaro, Eloy, 279–282, 283, 286–287

Alfaro, Flavio, 287

Altamirano, Eulogio, 140

Arce, Aniceto, 270–271

Argentina

Battle of Pavón, 177, 181

democracy in, 69

after 1912, 195–198

transformation of, 1

elections in

free and fair, 66

incomplete lists and, 190, 192, 193–194

legislative, 194

after 1912, 195–198

obligatory voting in, 191–192

presidential, 196

geographic fragmentation of, 35

military coups in, 6

military missions in, 181

military professionalization in, 27, 40–41, 176–182

government expenditures for, 176

military schools and training, 181–182

militias in, 84–85

National Autonomist Party, 183–186, 188–195

opposition revolts in, 22

political parties in

personalistic, 183, 197

splits in ruling parties, 188–195

strong, 103

Radical Civic Union party, 36, 69, 92, 182–187, 195–197, 198

manifesto for, 185

split within, 188–195

revolts in, 77, 176–182

suffrage rights in, 59

unification of, 177

war of independence for, 176

War of the Triple Alliance and, 25, 26, 85, 86, 89, 179

weak democracies in, 175–176

weak military in, 19–20

Arias, José Inocencio, 192–193

armies. See mass armies; militias

Army of the Andes, 124

Arteaga Conspiracy, 126–127

Aspíllaga, Antero, 245, 246–248

authoritarian regimes, authoritarianism and

armed revolts and, 20

in Bolivia, 5

as unstable, 262–263

in Brazil, 225–226, 254–260

in Colombia, 203, 217–218

in Ecuador, 5, 283–288

as unstable, 262–263

electoral, 9, 23

in Paraguay, 5

as unstable, 262–263

in Peru, 241–248

stable authoritarian regimes, 5, 42

transitional, 39

unstable, 38–39, 262–263

in Uruguay, 151–152

in Venezuela, 231–235

revolts as influence on, 227

Avellaneda, Nicolás, 177, 183

Ayala, Eligio, 294

Ayala, Eusebio, 299

balanced cleavages, 37–38, 115

ballots. See secret ballots

Balmaceda, José Manuel, 132, 136, 137–141, 143–144

Barbosa, Rui, 259

Barros Luco, Ramón, 145

Batlle y Ordóñez, José, 153–155, 163–172

Battle of Loncomilla, 127

Battle of Pavón, 177, 181

Bautista Egusquiza, Juan, 297–298

Belaunde, Victor Andrés, 241

bellicist approach, to state building, 24–25

Beltrán, Washington, 169

Belzú, Manuel, 74

Benavides, Oscar, 245

Berro, Bernardo, 148, 149, 159

Berro, Carlos, 161

Billinghurst, Guillermo, 42, 245

Blanco Party (Uruguay), 41, 84–85, 147, 148, 155–163, 171, 173

membership requirements for, 158

National Club, 157–158

Bolívar, Simón, 208

Bolivia

authoritarian regimes in, 5, 270–277

Chaco War, 269–270

democracy

obstacles to, 277

electoral fraud in, 69–70

export boom in, 267–268

geography of, 34

military in, 263–270

foreign involvement in, 268–269

professionalization of, 267–269

strength of, 94

training of, 263–264, 268

mutinies in, 275

political parties in

Conservative Party, 270–274

Liberal Party, 270–274

opposition parties, 274–275

personalistic, 270

weak, 103–104, 270–277

revolts in, 263–270

opposition, 1

War of the Confederation, 263

War of the Pacific and, 25, 85, 86, 129, 239

origins of, 87

Bonifaz, Neptalí, 287–288

booms. See export booms

Borgoño, Justiniano, 242–243

Brazil

authoritarianism in, 254–260

stable regimes in, 5, 42, 225–226

Catholic Church in, 37

coercive capacity in, 254

colonial history of, 248

democratic reforms in, 256–257

elections in, 23

electoral reforms, 257

presidential, 258, 259–260

Federalist Riograndense Rebellion, 253–254

First Republic in, 258, 259

military in, 248–254

German role in, 252–253

professionalization of, 249–253

weak, 248–249

militias in, 84–85

Minas Gerais state, 258–259

political parties in

Conservative, 254–260

Liberal, 254–260

Mineiro Republican Party, 258–259

Paulista Republican Party, 258–259

personalistic, 255

weak, 104–105, 254–260

revolts, 248–254

outsider, 1, 253–254

São Paulo state, 258–259

War of the Canudos, 253–254

War of the Contestados, 253–254

War of the Triple Alliance and, 25, 26, 85, 86, 89, 179, 251

Buero, Juan, 170

Bulnes, Manuel, 126, 127

Caamaño, José María, 285

Cáceres, Andrés Avelino, 239, 241, 242–243

Cádiz Constitution. See 1812 Constitution (Cádiz Constitution)

Camacho, Eliodoro, 271–272

Campisteguy, Juan, 171

Caro, Miguel Antonio, 215

Castilla, Ramón, 242–243

Castro, Cipriano, 42, 105, 225, 230–231, 232, 234–235

Catherine the Great, 29

Catholic Church

in Brazil, 37

in Chile, 4, 37

in Colombia, 4, 37, 209

in Latin America, 37

in Paraguay, 37, 295

regional strength of, 37

strong political parties influenced by, 113–114

in Uruguay, 37, 166, 171

in Venezuela, 37

Chaco War, 269–270, 294

Chile

Arteaga Conspiracy, 126–127

Battle of Loncomilla, 127

Catholic Church in, 4, 37

Chincha Islands War and, 129

civil wars in, 124, 126–127, 144

coercive capacity in, 85

Conservative Party in, 131–134, 136, 144–145

Conspiracy of the Daggers, 126–127

democratic reforms in, 33, 146

opposition parties and, 136–139

democratization in, 68, 130–144

breakdown of, 68

elections as part of (after 1891), 144–147

geographic factors for, 19

military professionalization as influence on, 146

strong political parties’ role in, 146–147

transformation of, 1, 10

elections in, 134–136

campaign costs, 145

competition in, 145

democratization and (after 1891), 144–147

electoral reform, 142

government intervention in, 137–139

legislative, 138

opposition parties’ role in, 135–137

presidential, 138

voter participation, 134–135, 137

voting secrecy in, 142

geographic fragmentation of, 35

Liberal Democratic Party in, 144–145

Liberal Party in Chile, 31, 131–134, 136, 144–145

Mapuche indigenous population in, 124, 134

military professionalization in, 25, 27, 40–41, 124–130

Army of the Andes and, 124

export boom and, 129

international assistance for, 129

international conflicts as influence on, 129

militias in, 84

mutinies in, 124

National Party in, 131–134, 144–145

political parties in, 130–144

democratization influenced by, 146–147

opposition parties, 32, 40, 136–139

personalistic, 130–131, 133

religious conflict and, 130–131

Radical Party in, 36, 131–134, 144–145

revolts in, 77, 124–130

opposition, 126, 130

Society of Equality and, 127

state repression as response to, 128

weak military and, 126

strong political parties in, 102

democratization influenced by, 146–147

suffrage restrictions in, 146

territorial cleavages in, 112

War of the Pacific and, 25, 85, 86, 129, 239

origins of, 87

weak military in, 19–20, 124

Chincha Islands War, 129

Cifuentes, Abdón, 135–136

Civil Party (Partido Civil) (Peru), 42, 236–237, 241, 243, 244–245, 247

civil wars. See also specific wars

in Chile, 124, 126–127, 144

in Colombia, 202

strong political parties and, 109–110

in Uruguay, 149–151

Guerra Grande, 151–152, 156

class pressure model, 46–47

cleavages. See also regional/territorial cleavages; religious cleavages

balanced, 37–38, 115

religious, 98–99, 111, 113–114

strong political parties influenced by, 35–36, 37–38

strong political parties influenced by, 35–38, 110–117

balanced cleavages, 115

class cleavages, 36, 110, 111–112

ethnic cleavages, 36, 110

coercive capacity

in Brazil, 254

in Chile, 85

in Colombia, 206

military strength and, 21–22

opposition revolts and, 20–21

in Paraguay, 85

in Uruguay, 152, 155

in Venezuela, 227

Colombia, 202, 203

authoritarianism in, 203, 217–218

Catholic Church in, 4, 37, 209

civil wars in, 202

coercive capacity in, 206

Conservative Party, 207–215, 221–222

split within, 215–219

constitutions in, 203, 212

reforms of, 218–219

democracy in, 69

analysis of, 223

breakdown of, 68

historical development of, 219–222

origins of, 198–199

democratic reforms in, 1, 41–42, 215

Ecuadorian-Colombian War, 93

1853 constitution, 108

elections in, 211–212

competition in, 212

complete-lists and, 217

electoral reforms and, 219

fraud in, 202, 212, 220–221

incomplete lists and, 217, 219

legislative, 211–212

presidential, 211–212, 213

electoral participation in, 61

geography of, 34

Liberal Party, 207–215, 220–221

split within, 215–219

military professionalization in, 41–42, 204–205, 206–207, 222

under Law 17 of 1907, 205

limits of, 207

military training as part of, 200, 205

after War of a Thousand Days, 204–205

political parties in

Conservative Party, 207–219, 221–222

Liberal Party, 207–219, 221–222

opposition parties, 32, 38, 220, 221–222

Republican Union in Colombia, 198, 211, 218, 221

strong, 103, 207–215

revolts in, 199–207

authoritarianism as result of, 203

costs of, 203–204

opposition, 1, 22

suffrage rights in, 59

territorial cleavages in, 112

uprisings in, 220

La Violencia period, 222

War of a Thousand Days, 1, 22, 41, 44, 89, 202, 203

military professionalization after, 204–205

opposition parties and, 222

War of the Parish Priests, 203

War of the Supremes, 202, 203

weak military in, 19–20, 82–83, 199–207

colonial rule, colonialism and

in Brazil, 248

in Latin America, elections in, 23

in Paraguay, 289

Colorado Party (Paraguay), 295–300

Colorado Party (Uruguay), 147, 148, 155–163, 171, 172, 173

democratic reform under, 163–172

opposition within, 164

Riveristas faction in, 167–168, 170–171

split in, 163–172

commodity booms, military professionalization influenced by, 26

complete-list, 63

in Argentine elections, 192, 194

in Chilean elections, 143

in Colombian elections, 217

in Uruguayan elections, 161–162

compulsory military service, 130, 239

Concha, José Vicente, 219–220

Concha Torres, Carlos, 287

conflict-settlement path, to democratization, 310

conservative parties, geography as factor for, 117

Conservative Party (Bolivia), 270–274

Conservative Party (Brazil), 254–260

Conservative Party (Chile), 131–134, 136, 144–145

Conservative Party (Colombia), 207–219, 221–222

Conservative Party (Ecuador), 284–286

Conservative Party (Venezuela), 231–233

conservative political parties, 116

democratic reforms and, 27–28

Conspiracy of the Daggers, 126–127

constitutions. See specific countries

Cordero, Luis, 285

Costa Rica

democracy in, 315

weak military in, 199

coups

in Argentina, 6

during Aristocratic Republic, 245

definition of, 78

in Paraguay, 291

regime outcomes and, 39

Crespo, Joaquín, 233

Cruz, José María de la, 127

Cuestas, Juan Lindolfo, 161–162

cumulative voting, 137, 143

Dahl, Robert A., 19

democratic laggards, 70–72

democratic pioneers, 70–71

democratic reforms. See reforms, democratic

democratization, democracy and. See also weak democracies; specific countries; specific topics

actor-based theories, 44

alternative explanations for, 43–47

class pressure model and, 46–47

conceptual approach to, 2–7, 9–12, 308–309

analysis of, 73, 302–304

conflict-settlement path to, 310

in early twentieth century, 68–73

presidential elections and, 70

empirical approaches to, 308–309

ephemeral, 50, 66–67

European-origin populations as influence on, 45

first wave of, 6, 7

future implications

for post-1929 politics, 304–307

for research, 314–316

geographic diffusion and, 46

ideational diffusion and, 46

Index of Democratization, 53, 72

indigenous populations as influence on, 45

measurement of, 9–12

in Mesoamerica, 314–315

methodological approach to, 12–16

modernization theory and, 2, 44

origins of, 1–2

past experience with democratic institutions as factor in, 45–46

political parties’ role in, 3–4

Polyarchy Index and, 72

regime formation and, 7

research methodology for, 7–9

databases in, 8–9

qualitative evidence, 7–8

quantitative evidence, 7–8

state-building and, 7

temporal diffusion and, 46

theoretical approaches to, 309–314

direct elections

electoral competition in, 63–64

presidential elections, 6

in Uruguay, 157

Dom Pedro I (Emperor), 248

Dom Pedro II (Emperor), 248

Durand, Augusto, 240, 241, 245

Echagüe, Pedro A., 192–193

Ecuador

authoritarian rule in, 5, 283–288

elections in

fraud in, 69–70

free and fair, 66

geographic fragmentation of, 118

geography of, 34

independence movement in, 278

Julian Revolution in, 287–288

Liberal Revolution in, 279–282, 286

military in, 277–283

professionalization of, 43, 278–283

weak, 93–94, 199

political parties

Conservative Party, 284–286

historical development of, 284–285

Liberal Party, 284–286

personalistic, 284

weak, 104, 283–288

revolts in, 77, 277–283

opposition, 1

suffrage rights for women in, 55–56

Ecuadorian-Colombian War, 93

1812 Constitution (Cádiz Constitution), 23, 55

election fraud. See fraud, election

elections, electoral systems and. See also free and fair elections; presidential elections; specific countries; specific elections

abuses of, 62–63

electoral fraud, 28, 29, 49, 62, 69–70

intimidation, 28, 29, 49

under colonial rule, 23

data sources on, 49

independent electoral authorities, 28, 29–31

indirect

electoral competition in, 63–64

in LAHED, 53

Latin American Historical Elections Database, 49–50, 51–54, 60, 63

data sources for, 52, 53–54

historical scope of, 51

presidential elections in, 51, 52, 53

secret ballot, 3–4

theoretical approach to, 48–51

electoral authoritarian regimes, 9, 23

electoral competition, 62–68

compared to U.S. elections, 64–65

in direct elections, 63–64

electoral fraud and, 62

ephemeral democratization and, 66–67

free and fair elections and, 66

in indirect elections, 63–64

lack of competitiveness, 65

margin of victory and, 65–66

voter intimidation and, 28, 29, 49, 62

electoral intimidation, 28, 29, 49, 62

elite insurrections and revolts, 77

definition of, 78

enslaved populations, suffrage restrictions for, 56

ephemeral democratization, 50

electoral competition and, 66–67

ephemeral political parties, 122

Escalier, José María, 274–275

Esguerra, Nicolás, 218

Estrada, Emilio, 286–287

ethnic cleavages, 36, 110

executive dominance, 29–30

export booms

in Bolivia, 267–268

in Chile, 129

military professionalization influenced by, 24, 26, 129

military strength and, 87

Federalist Riograndense Rebellion, 253–254

Federalist War, 227

Fernández, Aristides, 216

Fernández Alonso, Severo, 272

Ferreira, Benigno, 298

Fidel Suárez, Marco, 219–220

Figueroa Alcorta, José, 188–189

Flores, Antonio, 285

Flores, Juan José, 284

Flores, Venancio, 148, 159

Fonseca, Hermes da, 252, 259–260

Francia, José Gaspar Rodríguez da, 288–289

Franco, Manuel, 299

fraud, election, 28, 29, 49, 62

in Bolivia, 69–70

in Colombia, 202, 212, 220–221

in Peru, 69–70

in Venezuela, 69–70

free and fair elections, 53, 66, 71

in Argentina, 66

in Paraguay, 66

in Peru, 66

in Uruguay, 162

Freire, Ramón, 126

Gallegos, Rómulo, 105

Gallo, Pedro León, 127

Gaona, Juan B., 298

García, Lizardo, 286–287

García Moreno, Gabriel, 278–279, 284

geographic concentration, 14, 18, 38, 99, 123

geographic diffusion approach, democratization and, 46

geographic fragmentation

strong political parties and, 34–35, 99, 117–121

transportation infrastructure and, 119–120

Gibbs, Antony, 140

Giró, Juan Francisco, 149

Gómez, Juan Vicente, 42, 105, 225, 230–231, 232, 234–235

Gual, Pedro, 231–232

Guggiari, José P., 300

Guzmán, Antonio Leocadio, 232

Guzmán Blanco, Antonio, 227, 231–232, 233, 234

Haya de la Torre, Víctor Raúl, 247

Herrera, Benjamín, 90–91, 206

Herrera y Obes, Julio, 152

Holguín, Carlos, 214

Hutchinson, Norman, 230

ideational diffusion approach, democratization and, 46

incomplete list, 304–305, 312

in Argentine elections, 190, 192, 193–194

in Bolivian elections, 274

in Brazilian elections, 256–257

in Colombian elections, 217, 219

in Paraguayan elections, 299

in Uruguayan elections, 161–162

independent electoral authorities, 28, 29–31

Index of Democratization, 53, 72

indigenous populations

democratization influenced by, 45

Mapuche, 124

indirect elections

electoral competition in, 63–64

in LAHED, 53

insider revolts, 79

insurrections. See elite insurrections and revolts

interstate disputes, interstate wars and. See also specific wars

military professionalization after, 24, 25, 27

war outcomes as influence on, 26

Irarrázaval, Manuel José, 141

Irigoyen, Bernardo de, 184, 185

Irigoyen, Ignacio, 192–193

Jara, Albino, 299

Jiménez, Ricardo, 314–315

Jiménez de Aréchaga, Justino, 161

Juárez Celman, Miguel, 185–186, 188, 189

Julian Revolution, 287–288

Konig, Abraham, 182

Körner, Emil, 87, 129, 130

Kundt, Hans, 268, 269, 276

laggards. See democratic laggards

LAHED. See Latin American Historical Elections Database (LAHED)

LARD. See Latin American Revolts Database (LARD)

Latin America. See also Latin American Revolts Database (LARD); specific countries; specific topics

Catholic Church in, 37

international constitutions as influence in

1812 Spanish Constitution, 23

US Constitution, 23

late twentieth century revolts in, 316

representative institutions in, 23

US Constitution as influence in, 23

Latin American Historical Elections Database (LAHED), 49–50, 51–54, 60, 63

data sources for, 52, 53–54

historical scope of, 51

indirect elections in, 53

presidential elections in, 51, 52, 53

Latin American Revolts Database (LARD), 227, 264

revolts in

data sources for, 76–77

decline of, 79–80

Latorre, Lorenzo, 152, 156

Leguía, Augusto, 42, 104, 240, 244, 246–248

military support under, 248

personalistic political party, 247–248

Liberal Democratic Party (Chile), 144–145

liberal movements, 116

geography as factor for, 117

Liberal Party (Bolivia), 270–274

Liberal Party (Brazil), 254–260

Liberal Party (Chile), 131–134, 136, 144–145

Liberal Party (Colombia), 207–219, 220–221

Liberal Party (Ecuador), 284–286

Liberal Party (Paraguay), 295–300

Liberal Party (Peru), 247

Liberal Party (Venezuela), 231–233, 234

liberal political parties, in Chile, 31

Liberal Rebellion, in Paraguay, 298

Liberal Revolution, in Ecuador, 279–282, 286

Linares, Francisco, 233

López, Carlos Antonio, 289

López, José Hilario, 209–210

López de Romaña, Eduardo, 244

López Jordán, Ricardo, 180

Manini, Pedro, 164

Mapuche indigenous population, in Chile, 124, 134

Márquez, José Ignacio de, 202

Marroquín, José Manuel, 216–217

Martínez, Martín C., 165

Martínez Thedy, Eugenio, 170

mass armies, 22, 24, 75

McGill, Samuel, 230

Mendiondo, Rogelio, 169

Mibelli, Celestino, 169, 170

militaries, strong

in Bolivia, 94

coercive capacity and, 21–22

decline in, 81

democratization influenced by, 72–73

in Ecuador, 93–94

expansion of military and, 88

export booms and, 87

military modernization as influence on, 87–88

military professionalization and, 85–94

data sources on, 90

international conflicts and, 86

monopolies on use of force, 89

through officer training, 88

opposition revolts and, 21

outsider revolts and, 92

in Paraguay, 85, 93

popular uprisings and, 91

regime outcomes, 39

regime stability and, 91

revolts as influence on, 81

state-building and, 87

through use of foreign weaponry, 88–89

war outcomes as influence on, 86–87

militaries, weak

democratization influenced by

in Argentina, 19–20

in Bolivia, 19

in Brazil, 248–249

in Chile, 19–20, 124

revolts as result of, 126

in Colombia, 19–20, 82–83, 199–207

in Costa Rica, 199

in Ecuador, 19, 199

military expenditures as factor for, 82–83

during nineteenth century, 82–85

in Paraguay, 19

in Peru, 199, 237

regime outcomes and, 38–39

in Uruguay, 19–20, 149

in Venezuela, 199, 231–235

militarized conflicts. See civil wars; wars

in authoritarian regimes, 22–23

democratization and, 18–24

with dominant militaries, 20

legitimate use of force in, 18–19

literature on, 19

military stalemate as influence on, 20

state capacity and, 19

military professionalization, 3, 22

in Argentina, 27, 40–41, 176–182

government expenditures for, 176

military missions, 181

military schools and training, 180, 181–182

in Bolivia, 267–269

in Brazil, 249–253

in Chile, 25, 27, 40–41, 124–130

Army of the Andes and, 124

export boom and, 129

international assistance for, 129

international conflicts as influence on, 129

in Colombia, 41–42, 204–205, 206–207, 222

by geographic region, 207

under Law 17 of 1907, 205

military training as part of, 200, 205

after War of a Thousand Days, 204–205

commodity booms and, 26

costs of, 26

democratization influenced by, 44–45, 72–73

in Ecuador, 279–283

export booms and, 24, 26

interstate conflicts and, 24, 25, 27

war outcomes, 26

military strength and, 85–94

data sources on, 90

international conflicts and, 86

opposition rebellions and, 22

origins of, 24–27

in Paraguay, 43, 291–294

in Peru, 239–240

regime outcomes and, 38, 39–43

with strong military, 39

unstable authoritarianism and, 38–39

with weak military, 38–39

revolts and, 74–76, 81–82

state-building and, 24–25

bellicist approach to, 24–25

in Uruguay, 40–41, 148–155, 173–174

establishment of national army, 148

in Venezuela, 227–230

War of a Thousand Days and, 44

in wealthy nations, 27

military schools, military training and

in Argentina, 180, 181–182

in Bolivia, 263–264, 268

in Colombia, 200, 205

in Paraguay, 294

in Peru, 236

in Venezuela, 226

military service. See compulsory military service

military strength. See also militaries, strong; militaries, weak

in Bolivia, 94

coercive capacity and, 21–22

export booms and, 87

military professionalization and, 85–94

data sources on, 90

international conflicts and, 86

opposition revolts and, 21

outsider revolts and, 92

in Paraguay, 85, 93

popular uprisings and, 91

revolts as influence on, 81

state-building and, 87

through weapons accumulation, 88–89

military training. See military schools, military training and

militias, 84–85

in Peru, 236–237

in Uruguay, 148

in Venezuela, 227

Mineiro Republican Party, 258–259

Mitre, Bartolomé, 177–179, 185

modernization theory, democratization and, 2, 44

Monagas, José Gregorio, 231–232, 234

Monagas, José Tadeo, 231–233, 234

monopolies, on violence or use of force, 89

Montero, Pedro, 287

Montt, Manuel, 127, 130–131, 143, 145

Morais, Prudente de, 257

Morales Bermúdez, Remigio, 242–243

Mosquera, Tomás Cipriano de, 200, 210

Muñoz, Basilio, 90–91, 155

mutinies

in Bolivia, 275

in Chile, 124

definition of, 78

National Autonomist Party (PAN) (Argentina), 183–186, 188–195

National (civic) guard, 89, 136, 143, 249, 251, 278

National Party (Chile), 131–134, 144–145

National Union Party, 189, 193, 194

New Zealand, democratic transformation in, geographic factors for, 19

North, John, 140

Norway, democratic transformation in, geographic factors for, 19

Núñez, Rafael, 204, 210, 215

obligatory voting and registration, 31, 168–169, 191–192, 194, 195

O’Higgins, Bernardo, 124

Olaya Herrera, Enrique, 219–220

opposition parties

in Bolivia, 274–275

in Chile, 32, 40, 135–139

in Colombia, 32, 38, 220, 221–222

democratic reforms and, 3–4, 29–32

democratization influenced by, 3–4, 72–73

in Peru, 243

in Uruguay, 32, 38, 164

use of past conflicts by, 21

opposition revolts

in Argentina, 22

in Bolivia, 1

in Chile, 126, 130

coercive state capacity and, 20–21

in Colombia, 22

military professionalization and, 22

state military strength and, 21

in Uruguay, 22

Orbegoso, Luis Jose de, 242

Oribe, Manuel, 149, 156

Ospina, Mariano, 203

Ospina, Pedro Nel, 220–221

outsider revolts, 79

in Brazil, 253–254

military strength and, 92

in Peru, 240

Pacheco, Gregorio, 270–271

Páez, José Antonio, 231–232

PAN. See National Autonomist Party (PAN) (Argentina)

Pando, José M., 272–273

Paraguay

authoritarian regimes in, 5

Catholic Church in, 37, 295

Chaco War, 269–270, 294

coercive capacity in, 85

coups in, 291

democracy in

development of, 288

political instability and, 300

elections in

free and fair, 66

legislative, 297

presidential, 297–298

geographic fragmentation of, 35

military in, 288–294

during colonial era, 289

military academies, 294

professionalization of, 43, 291–294

strength of, 85, 93

militias in, 84

opposition revolts in, 1

political parties in, 294–300

Colorado Party, 295–300

Liberal Party, 295–300

partisan identification with, 296

revolts in, 43, 77, 288–294

Liberal Rebellion, 298

state repression from, 291

uprisings in, 291

War of the Triple Alliance (Paraguayan War), 25, 26, 85, 86, 89, 93, 179, 251

democratization influenced by, 288

Pardo, José, 246, 247

Pardo, Manuel, 236–237, 241, 242, 243

Paredes, Manuel Rigoberto, 103–104

Parra, Aquileo, 203–204

Partido Civil (Civil Party) (Peru), 42, 236–237, 241, 243, 244–245, 247

Paulista Republican Party, 258–259

Pedro II (Emperor), 257

Pellegrini, Carlos, 188–189

personalistic political parties, 101, 104, 122

in Argentina, 183, 198

in Bolivia, 270

in Brazil, 255

in Chile, 130–131, 133

in Ecuador, 284

Leguía and, 247–248

in Peru, 101, 104, 241

in Venezuela, 231–232, 234–235

Peru

Aristocratic Republic in, 243

coups during, 245

authoritarianism in, 241–248

constitutions in, 239

democratic reforms in, 243

elections in

electoral reforms, 243–244

fraud in, 69–70

free and fair, 66

legislative, 244–245

presidential, 244–245

military in, 235–240

compulsory service for, 239

international assistance for, 240

professionalization of, 239–240

training for, 236

weak, 199, 237

militias in, 236–237

political parties

Civil Party, 42, 236–237, 241, 243, 244–245, 247

Liberal Party, 247

opposition parties, 243

personalistic, 101, 104, 241

weakness of, 104, 241–248

revolts in, 235–240

opposition revolts, 1

outsider, 240

suffrage rights for males in, 59, 243–244

War of the Pacific and, 25, 85, 86, 129, 239

Pessoa, João, 260

Piérola, Nicolás, 237, 239, 240, 241, 244–245

Plaza, Leonidas, 282, 286, 287

political parties. See also opposition parties; specific countries; specific topics

attachment to electorate, 210–211, 224, 225, 255–256

conservative, democratic reforms and, 27–28

democratic reforms and, 27–34

conservative parties, 27–28

opposition parties, 3–4, 29–32

ruling parties, 28–29, 32–34

democratization and, 3–4

ephemeral, 122

institutionalization of, 100, 102

linkages, 37, 98, 174, 284

ruling, 28–29, 32–34

weak, 122

political parties, weak, 122

in Bolivia, 270–277

in Brazil, 254–260

in Ecuador, 283–288

in Peru, 241–248

political party strength, 34–38

analysis of, 121–122

in Argentina, 103

in Bolivia, 103–104

in Brazil, 104–105

Catholic Church and, 113–114

in Chile, 102

democratization influenced by, 146–147

in Colombia, 103, 207–215

conservative parties, 116

geography as factor for, 117

data sources on, 101

definition of, 100

democratization influenced by, 72–73, 107–108

in Ecuador, 104

from 1870–1930, 100–105, 106–107

factors for, 106–110

geographic fragmentation in countries and, 34–35, 99, 119, 117–121

transportation infrastructure and, 119–120

inter-party civil wars and, 109–110

liberal movements, 116

geography as factor for, 117

origins of, 34

in Paraguay, 103

in Peru, 104

social cleavages as influence on, 35–38, 110–117

balanced, 115

economic class cleavages, 36, 110, 111–112

ethnic cleavages, 36, 110

religious cleavages, 35–36, 37–38, 98–99, 111, 113–114

territorial cleavages, 36–37, 98–99, 112–113

socioeconomic modernization as influence on, 109

theoretical approach to, 98–100

in Uruguay, 102, 147

in Venezuela, 105

violent conflict and, 109

Polyarchy (Dahl), 19

Polyarchy Index, 72

popular uprisings, 78

in Colombia, 220

military strength and, 91

in Paraguay, 291

Portales, Diego, 126–127

Prado, Jorge, 245

Prado, Manuel, 245

Prado, Mariano, 242

presidential elections

in Argentina, 196

in Brazil, 258, 259–260

in Chile, 138

in Colombia, 211–212, 213

as democratic reform, 6

democratization and, 70

free and fair, 71

in Latin American Historical Elections Database, 51, 52, 53

in Paraguay, 297–298

in Peru, 244–245

in Uruguay, 159–160

Prestes, Luis Carlos, 260

Prieto, José Joaquín, 126

principista parties, in Uruguay, 158–159

proportional representation

democratic reforms and, 28

in Uruguay, 172

Quintana, Manuel, 188–189

Radical Civic Union party (UCR), in Argentina, 36, 69, 92, 182–187, 195–197, 198

manifesto for, 185

split within, 188–195

Radical Party (Chile), 36, 131–134, 144–145

rebellions. See revolts, rebellions and

Recabarren, Manuel, 141–142

reforms, democratic

in Brazil, 256–257

in Chile, 33, 146

opposition parties and, 136–139

in Colombia, 1, 41–42, 215

direct presidential elections, 6

expansion of suffrage, 28–29

incentives for, 312

packages of complementary measures, 31

in Peru, 243

political parties and, 27–34

conservative parties, 27–28

opposition parties, 3–4, 29–32

ruling parties, 28–29, 32–34

proportional representation and, 28

ruling parties and, 28–29

political splits within, 32–34

secret ballots and, 28

term limits, 6

in third wave of democratization, 31

in Uruguay, 33, 161–162, 173

under Batlle y Ordóñez, 163–172

Colorado Party role in, 163–172

regime outcomes

coups and, 39

determinants of, 38

exogenous factors, 38

military professionalization and, 38, 39–43

with strong military, 39

unstable authoritarianism and, 38–39

with weak military, 38–39

opposition parties and, 38

scoring of, 40

regional/territorial cleavages

strong political parties and, 36–37, 98–99, 112–113

in Uruguay, 112–113, 156

religious cleavages, 35–36, 37–38, 98–99

representation. See proportional representation

representative institutions, in Latin America, 23

Republican Union (Colombia), 198, 211, 218, 221

Restrepo, Carlos, 206, 218, 219–220

revolts, rebellions and. See also elite insurrections and revolts; mutinies; opposition revolts; popular uprisings

in Argentina, 77, 176–182

in Bolivia, 263–270

in Latin American Revolts Database, 264

opposition revolts, 1

in Brazil, 248–254

opposition revolts, 1

outsider revolts, 253–254

in Chile, 77, 124–130

opposition revolts, 126, 130

Society of Equality and, 127

state repression as response to, 128

weak military and, 126

in Colombia, 199–207

authoritarianism as result of, 203

costs of, 203–204

opposition revolts, 1, 22

conceptual approach to, 74–76

decline in, 76–82

from 1830–1929, 77

factors for, 80–82

in Latin American Revolts Database, 79–80

military strength as factor in, 81

state capacity as factor for, 80–81

democratization as result of, 1

in Ecuador, 77, 277–283

opposition revolts, 1

insider, 79

in late twentieth century Latin America, 316

Latin American Revolts Database

data sources for, 76–77

decline of revolts in, 79–80

leadership of, 78–79

typology of revolts and, 77, 78

methodological approach to, 75–76

temporal range in, 76

military professionalization and, 74–76, 81–82

military strength influenced by, 81

negative impacts of, 74–75

outsider, 79

in Paraguay, 43, 77, 288–294

Liberal Rebellion, 298

state repression from, 291

in Peru, 235–240

opposition revolts, 1

outsider revolts, 240

statistical analysis of, 94–97

determinants in, 96

Tocqueville on, 74

typology of, 77–78

by leader types, 77, 78

in Uruguay, 148–155

in Venezuela, 226–231

authoritarianism as result of, 227

in Latin American Revolts Database, 227

opposition revolts, 1

Revolution of the Spears, 162

Reyes, Rafael, 204–206, 216–218

Riccheri, Pablo, 181

Riesco, Germán, 145

Rivera, Fructuoso, 156

Roca, Julio A., 177, 179, 180, 183

Roca, Julio A., Jr., 192

Rocafuerte, Vicente, 279

Rodríguez Laretta, Aureliano, 165, 168, 169

Roldán, Salvador Camacho, 214

Rosas, Juan Manuel de, 176–177, 182–183

Rossi, César, 172

Rothlisberger, Ernst, 210–211

ruling political parties, democratic reforms and, 28–29, 32–34

Saavedra, Bautista, 273, 274–275, 276

Sáenz Peña, Luis, 188

Sáenz Peña, Roque, 41, 188–195

La Sagrada police force, in Venezuela, 230

Salamanca, Daniel, 273, 274–275

Salom, Bartolomé, 232–233

Samper, José Miguel, 215–216

Sánchez Cerro, Luis M., 248

Sanclemente, Manuel Antonio, 215–216

Sanfuentes, Enrique Salvador, 140

Sanfuentes, Juan Luis, 145

Santa María, Domingo, 129, 136, 137–139

Santander, Francisco de Paula, 208

Santos, Enrique, 4

Santos, Máximo, 156, 162

Saravia, Aparicio, 155

Sarmiento, Domingo, 177–179, 180

secret ballots, 3–4

in Chile, 142

democratic reforms and, 28

in Uruguay elections, 172

Segundo, Juan José, 169

Sever, Jacques, 268

Siles, Hernando, 275–277

social cleavages. See cleavages

Society of Equality, 127

Solano López, Francisco, 290, 295

South America. See also specific countries; specific topics

democracy in

conceptual approach to, 17–18

methodological approach to, 17–18

origins of, 1–2, 17–18

Spain, 1812 Constitution, 23, 55

stable authoritarian regimes, 5, 42, 224–226, 235. See also Brazil; Peru; Venezuela

state capacity. See also coercive capacity

revolts influenced by, 80–81

state repression

in Chile, 128

in Paraguay, 291

state-building

costs of, 26

military professionalization and, 24–25

bellicist approach to, 24–25

military strength and, 87

Stroessner, Alfredo, 294

suffrage rights

in Argentina, 59

in Chile, 146

in Colombia, 59

in democratic reforms, 28–29

in Ecuador, 55–56

electoral participation and, 54–62

by age, 60

expansion of, 56–58

for males, 55, 59

definition of, 59

in Peru, 59, 243–244

restrictions on

by country, 56–58

economic, 57–58, 59–60

for enslaved populations, 56

literacy, 57–58, 59–60

for women, 55–56, 146

universal, 55, 59

in Uruguay, 161

for women, 169–170

in Venezuela, 233

for women

in Chile, 146

in Ecuador, 55–56

in Uruguay, 169–170

Switzerland, democratic transformation in, geographic factors for, 19

Tajes, Máximo, 156

Tejedor, Carlos, 177

temporal diffusion approach, democratization and, 46

term limits, as democratic reforms, 6

territorial cleavages. See regional/territorial cleavages

third wave of democracy, democratic reforms in, 31

Tocqueville, Alexis de, 74

Tornero, Santos, 128

Toro, David, 276

Tovar, Manuel Felipe, 231–232

training, of military. See military schools, military training and

transitional authoritarianism, 39

UCR. See Radical Civic Union party (UCR), in Argentina

Udaondo, Guillermo, 189

United States (US), electoral competition in South America compared to, 64–65

universal suffrage, 55, 59

unstable authoritarian regimes, 262–263

military professionalization in, 38–39

Uribe Uribe, Rafael, 216, 217, 219–220

Urquiza, Justo José, 177

Urriola, Pedro, 127

Uruguay, 4

authoritarianism in, 151–152

Blanco Party in, 41, 84–85, 147, 148, 155–163, 171, 173

membership requirements for, 158

National Club, 157–158

Catholic Church in, 37, 166, 171

civil wars in, 149–151

Guerra Grande, 151–152, 156

civilian government employees in, 161

coercive capacity in, 152, 155

Colorado Party in, 147, 148, 155–163, 171, 172, 173

democratic reform under, 163–172

opposition within, 164

Riveristas faction in, 167–168, 170–171

split in, 163–172

democracy in, 68–69, 155–163

breakdown of, 68

conceptual approach to, 147

constitutional support of, 172–174

proportional representation in, 172

strong, 172–174

transformation to, 1

democratic reforms in, 33, 161–162, 173

under Batlle y Ordóñez, 163–172

Colorado Party role in, 163–172

elections in

competition in, 157

direct, 157

free and fair, 162

legislative, 160

presidential, 160

secret ballots in, 172

voter participation in, 165–166

geographic fragmentation of, 35

military professionalization in, 40–41, 148–155, 173–174

establishment of national army, 148

militias in, 149

political parties in, 155–163

national organizations for, 157, 158

opposition parties in, 32, 38, 164

opposition revolts in, 22

power-sharing agreements between, 162–163

principista parties, 158–159

split in, 163–172

state infrastructure in, 148

strong political parties in, 102, 147

territorial cleavages in, 112–113, 156

War of the Triple Alliance and, 25, 26, 85, 86, 89, 93, 179

weak military in, 19–20, 149

revolts in, 148–155

Revolution of the Spears and, 162

suffrage rights in, 161

for women, 169–170

USSee United States (US), electoral competition in South America compared to

Varela, José Pedro, 149

Vargas, Getulio, 254, 260

Vargas, José Antonio, 232–233

Vásquez Acevedo, Alfredo, 171

Veintemilla, Ignacio, 285–286

Vélez, Joaquín F., 216–217

Vélez, Marceliano, 215

Venezuela

authoritarian regimes in, 231–235

revolts as influence on, 227

stable, 5, 42, 225–226, 235

Catholic Church in, 37

coercive capacity in, 227

elections in, 232–234

electoral fraud, 69–70

Federalist War, 227

military in, 226–231

professionalization of, 227–230

training for, 226

weak, 199, 231–235

militias in, 227

political parties in

Conservative Party, 231–233

Liberal Party, 231–233, 234

personalistic, 231–232, 234–235

strength of, 105

revolts in, 226–231

authoritarianism as result of, 227

in Latin American Revolts Database, 227

opposition revolts, 1

La Sagrada police force in, 230

suffrage rights for males in, 233

Vidaurre, José Antonio, 126–127

Viera, Feliciano, 167

Villaneuva, Benito, 192–193

Villanueva, José Gabino, 275

La Violencia period, in Colombia, 222

voting rights. See suffrage rights

voting systems

complete-list, 217

cumulative, 137, 143

incomplete list, 190, 192, 193–194, 217, 219

obligatory voting, 31, 168–169, 191–192, 194, 195

War of a Thousand Days, 1, 22, 41, 89, 202, 203

military professionalization after, 44, 204–205

opposition parties and, 222

War of the Canudos, 253–254

War of the Confederation, 263

War of the Contestados, 253–254

War of the Pacific, 25, 85, 86, 129, 239

origins of, 87

War of the Parish Priests, 203

War of the Supremes, 202, 203

War of the Triple Alliance (Paraguayan War), 25, 26, 85, 86, 89, 93, 179

democratization in Paraguay influenced by, 288

wars. See civil wars; specific topics

Wars of Independence, 82–83

weak democracies. See also Argentina; Colombia

in Argentina, 175–176

in Colombia, 175–176

weapons

imports of, 88–89

military strength through, 88–89

Williman, Claudio, 155, 163

Wisner, Francisco, 85, 289

women, suffrage rights for

in Chile, 146

in Ecuador, 55–56

in Uruguay, 169–170

Yrigoyen, Hipólito, 41, 184, 185–187, 190, 191, 197–198

Zavarce, Hermenegildo, 233

Zegers, Julio, 140

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