The first thing that must be said is that this is a fine work of social history covering a period and a topic that are probably not well or widely known, especially outside German Masonic circles. The author, and no less the translator, has thus rendered a very praiseworthy service.
The book is based on the author’s 1999 dissertation at the University of Bielefield. In his Preface, Hoffman defines his project as follows: “to explore the unintended political consequences of Enlightenment ideas and practices in an age characterized by the advent of nationalism, anti-Semitism and social discord” (p. ix). And near the end, he submits that: “Freemasonry illustrates the politically double-edged nature of civic humanitarianism. The moral and humanist claims that Freemasonry had raised since the eighteenth century were always tied to an elitist social practice that aimed at establishing and maintaining distinction. Over the course of the nineteenth century, this contributed to the intensification of social divisions, the very divisions that moral universalism was supposed to overcome” (p. 290).
This is a provocative thesis, to be sure, but Hoffman succeeds brilliantly in demonstrating his contention, at least through this account of nineteenth and early twentieth century German Freemasonry. The subjects of the study were guided by a set of high-minded ideals and principles, among them “sociability,” “civic virtue,” “civility,” “moral improvement,” and the “universal brotherhood of man.” De Tocqueville’s idea of the “art of association” informs both the Masonic movement itself and this author’s understanding of it. Set against these lofty ideals, however, there are glaring shortcomings. The phrase “brotherhood of man” was to be read literally. There were no women members, notwithstanding efforts by the “brothers,” from time to time, to involve their “sisters” (their spouses). Membership was much more Protestant than Roman Catholic. (Indeed, the Roman Church had long been officially hostile to Freemasonry.) Social class exclusivity and its consequent prejudices were built-in. Some lodges were more aristocratic; others were more bourgeois in character, but virtually none included any tradesmen, much less working class men. In any event, application fees were set at a level which excluded all but wealthy upper classes. The inclusion or exclusion of Jews was hotly debated; some lodges accepted Jewish applicants, but others, by policy, rejected them. There were also political tensions within and between lodges—some were understood to be conservative-establishment in their outlook; others, more assertively liberal. Relations with the state became another source of tension; some lodges maintained a distance, whilst others encouraged and welcomed high officials to their membership. In some cases, lodges actually sought and received the protection of members of noble and royal families who did what was expected of them but, in turn, influenced the character of the lodges they chose to join.
Hoffman demonstrates very effectively the contradiction between external perceptions and internal realities of lodge life. The very secrecy of Masonic life and rituals, arguably necessary for self-protection in the eighteenth century, tended to feed groundless and irrational suspicions, most notably the idea of “Jewish-Masonic conspiracy” which became the subject of feverishly anti-Semitic tracts. Considering the ambivalence (and oft-times outright opposition) towards Jewish membership which prevailed in Masonic lodges throughout this period, the irony is striking.
Despite its many merits, the book presents some problems of accessibility. Hoffman probably assumed a certain level of knowledge that his readers educated in Germany and France would possess. For example, the virtual absence of the German unification of 1871 is curious. This would have been an event of enormous significance for the whole of German civil society. What the author does address well is the Franco-Prussian war of 1870–1871 because it demonstrated how war in general undermines universalism and cosmopolitanism and how this one in particular fanned nationalist and chauvinist tendencies within both French and German Freemasonry. That the war was used to create the conditions in which the German unification project could be consummated would suggest that the unification itself deserved more attention.
Something that would have been helpful for the uninitiated is a general chapter on the early origins and history of Freemasonry. In fairness, though, there are other works that cover that ground, and an additional chapter would have added to the length of this work.
There are some sobering lessons to be drawn from this fine piece of historical research. Those who adopt a too uncritical or even rosy view of civil society need to reflect on this fascinating tale of high ideals coming up against social and historical forces which they are not well equipped to withstand. Whilst it remains true that an effective democracy is unlikely to thrive without a vibrant associational life, civil society organizations are sometimes informed by very narrow interests and perspectives. The conflicts described in this study between universalist cosmopolitanism, on the one hand, and religious, ethnic, and national identities, on the other, challenge us all to serious reflection.
Open access
