Index

doi:10.1017/9781009605243.019

Index

16th August Union, 178–180

3Ts (tin, tungsten, and tantalum), 112, 115

accountability, 1–2, 4–5

Assam tea production and, 59

audit culture and, 152

blockchain and, 159

cobalt mining and, 112

concealment and, 19

control of data and, 158

corporate responsibility initiatives and, 15

development and, 245

digital transparency and, 8–9, 11, 100, 103–104

disclosure and, 55, 60

DIY aid and, 192

EITI and, 191

Europeanness and, 163

Greenlandic resource extraction and, 176, 185–186

organic certification and, 246–247, 257

provenance and, 22

ruby mining industry and, 96

sociotechnical systems and, 13

sustainability and, 50, 52–53, 56, 61

TAIs and, 190–191

transparency technologies and, 151

trust and, 19–21

verbal contracts and, 22

volunteers and, 199

written forms of knowledge and, 251–253 See also transparency and accountability initiatives (TAIs)

actor–network theory, 12

Africa, 83, 88, 92, 224

Africert, 53

Afrique Occidentale Française, 93

Aftab (gem trader), 74, 77

agnotological ideology, 133

agriculture, 2, 9

extractivism and, 14–15, 20

imaginaries of, 172

opacity and, 4 See also rice; tea; vanilla

aid projects, 20, 202–204

DIY aid and, 192–196

Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative and, 191

Madagascar Health and, 196–197, 201–202

Publish What You Fund and, 190

TAIs and, 191–192

volunteers and, 197–201

Aid Transparency Index (ATI), 190, 202

Alcoa, 174–175

algorithms, 8

verification regimes and, 13

Alloa, Emmanuel, 6

Althusser, Louis, 184

aluminum, 173–175, 184

amateurism, 194–195, 203

Amateurs Without Borders (Schnable), 194

ambiguity as technical problem, 56, 60

Amnesty International, 111

Amsterdam, Netherlands, 134

anthropology of the senses, 169

arbitrage, 68

asymmetric exchange and, 77

Archer, Matthew, 159

Arctic region, 175–176, 184

artificial intelligence, 8

artisanal mining (ASM), 83, 87–88, 91–93, 95

cobalt and, 111–112, 116

diamonds and, 104–108

digital transparency and, 100, 102, 113–114, 117–118

expertise and, 85

gold and, 150

gold as inalienable commodity and, 240

Greenland and, 170, 177

Guinean gold mining and, 227

Swiss gold trade and, 228, 233–235

Assam, Kenya, 48, 50, 59

assessment, 70–72, 75

asset tokenization, 151, 158

Association for Responsible Mining, 233

astrological value, 76–77

asylum claims, 218

asymmetric exchange, 69, 76–77

auctions, 17, 37, 42–44

Auctions Enquiry Commission and, 39–42

Pan-India e-auctions and, 44–45

ruby mining industry and, 88

Auctions Enquiry Commission, 38–42

audit culture, 10, 18, 145, 152

calculative rationalities of, 196, 201

auditing

blockchain and, 112–113, 115–116

certification standards and, 54

diamond mining and, 109

gem trade ethics refractory to, 85

gold transfer program and, 145

guerrilla auditing and, 222, 229

organic rice certification and, 211, 213

ruby-mining industry and, 96

sustainability and, 52

transparency discourse and, 211

truth regimes and, 219

automated decision-making processes, 8

Avataq, 175

Ballestero, Andrea, 6, 9, 96, 151

Bank of England, 149, 230

Banking Act (1934), 231

bauxite, 173

Beck, Glenn, 150

Belgian diamond trade, 101–102, 123–126, 128, 131–134, 137–138

tax practices and, 134–135

Bentham, Jeremy, 7

Best, Jacqueline, 60

Better Gold Initiative, 233

Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), 34

Birchall, Clare, 6, 8, 55, 236

blockchain, 19, 103, 110, 113–117

chain of custody protocols and, 152

gold and, 151, 156–159, 163

transparency initiatives and, 146

trust and, 20

Boas, Franz, 6

Bolay, Matthieu, 154, 158

Bornstein, Erica, 211

Brazil, 159

Bre-X hoax, 150

Brichet, Nathalia, 180

brokerage, 19, 127–133, 137–138

47th Street diamond district and, 129

anonymizing function of, 135

Belgian diamond trade and, 123–127

certification and, 135–136

disintermediation and, 136–137

invoicing and, 134–137

structural position of, 133

tax practices and, 134–135

Bulgaria, 160

Burkina Faso, 93

business case for transparency, 50, 56, 60

Calcutta, India, 39–41

Calvão, Filipe, 158

capitalism, 15

Indian tea trade and, 36

transparency and, 23

causal ontology, 56

causal relationships, 49–51, 57, 59, 62

Central African Republic, 102

Central Bank Gold Agreement (CBGA), 161

central banks, 148, 151

dollar convertibility and, 149

gold refinement and, 228

gold reserves and, 145–146, 159–163

gold’s status as commodity and, 238

theory of hoards and, 160

verification of gold in, 152

certification, 15

asylum claims and, 218

clean chains of gold custody and, 157, 159

conflict-free minerals and, 112, 114

Country of Origin certificates and, 180

diamond brokerage and, 127, 135–136

diamond mining and, 104

digital technology and, 19

digital transparency and, 100–101, 113

direct trade and, 36

GemFair app and, 107

gold supply chain and, 153–155

Greenland Ruby and, 176

Kimberley Process Certification Scheme and, 101–103

organic rice and, 209–210, 212–214, 218–219

reputation and, 202

ruby mining and, 83–84, 90, 95

social life of things and, 99

sustainability and, 52–53

tea industry and, 17

traceability and, 214–217

transparency initiatives and, 145, 152

trust and, 20

truth regimes and, 22

value and, 147 See also organic certification

child labor, 103, 111, 114

China, 74, 151

Greenland and, 171

Greenland rare earth deposits and, 181–182, 185

jewelry markets in, 89

tea trade and, 39

circulation, 14

direct trade and, 36

free trade and, 42

Indian tea trade and, 39

sapphire trade and, 74, 76–77

transparency and, 45

valorization and, 69

civic rights, 237

class domination, 186

clean technology, 173

climate change, 169–170

aluminum CO2 emissions and, 174

extractivism and, 20

techno-fixes and, 173

cobalt, 99–102, 104, 110–112, 118

blockchain and, 113–116

immediacy and, 19

Cobalt Blockchain Inc., 115

Cochin, India, 39–41

coercive expertise, 84, 90

collectivity, 21

colonialism, 93, 133

gold as money commodity and, 228

Greenland and, 170–172, 184, 186 See also neocolonialism; postcolonialism

Comaroff, Jean and John, 211

commissions, 131

commodities, 225, 240

gold as money versus, 227–228, 230–231, 235–238

organic certification and, 256

transparency and, 245, 258

value as property of, 76

commodity fetishism, 223, 228

community of regard, 236

competent persons reports, 84, 93–95

concealment, 66–68, 72–73

accountability and, 19

digital transparency and, 100

selective disclosure and, 69

conflict financing, 15, 103

Conflict Minerals Regulation (2021), 111

conflict-free resources, 99–100

cobalt and, 110–112, 114

diamond mining and, 107

GemFair and, 105

gold and, 150, 153, 155, 158

hidden costs of, 112

Kimberley Process and, 101–102

value-making and, 146

conspiracy thinking, 4, 8

consumption studies, 16–17, 23

contamination, 234

organic certification and, 257

contexts, 57, 61–62

cooperatives, 248, 255

corporate social responsibility (CSR) movement, 4, 15, 84–85, 90–91, 94

blockchain and, 113–116

cobalt mining and, 111–112

coercive strategies and, 19

consumer-centered performances of, 115

decoupling of ethics and business in, 234

diamond mining and, 108

digital transparency and, 99, 101, 103–104, 117–118

due diligence and, 225

gold supply chains and, 156–166

question of gold ownership and, 238–239

ruby mining and, 82, 84, 86–87, 91, 95

Swiss gold trade and, 222–225

Swiss gold trade with Dubai and, 236

Swiss program for, 233–235

truth and, 21

veridiction and, 226, 229, 232, 239–240

Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (CSDDD), 54

Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD), 54

corporations, 170, 175–176, 179, 184–185

public participation and, 183

resource imaginaries and, 181 See also corporate social responsibility (CSR) movement; sourcing; supply chains

corruption, 34, 36–37, 44

blockchain and, 115

conflict-free resources and, 112

digital transparency and, 103

gold as risk sector and, 222

postcolonial governments and, 46

transparency technologies and, 151

willful blindness and, 132

Corsìn Jiménez, Alberto, 20

countering the financing of terrorism (CFT) legislation, 135

Covid-19 pandemic, 1

craftsmanship, 68–69, 77

Crawford, Kate, 117

credit, 69

criminalization, 83, 88–89, 91–92, 94–95

cryolite, 173

currency, 227–231, 235, 237

custody chain protocols, 152

blockchain and, 156–159

provenance and, 240

customs, 22, 89–90

Swiss gold trade and, 227–228, 230, 232, 235–237, 239

cut-tear-curl tea (CTC), 46

D’Avignon Robyn, 93

D’Halluin, Estelle, 218

data-driven transparency, 158

DIY aid and, 202

information proliferation and, 62

sustainability and, 49, 51, 54, 60

Swiss gold trade and, 235–237

tea sourcing and, 57

zombie transparency and, 116

De Beers, 102, 104–105, 109–110, 117

GemFair program of, 19, 100, 105–107

Deberdt, Raphael, 112–113

demand-driven aid, 202

democracy, 19

Indian tea trade and, 36

transparency initiatives and, 152

Democratic Republic of Congo, 102, 111, 118, 155

cobalt mining in, 100–119

ethics of invisibility and, 11

immediacy and, 19

Denmark, 170–172, 184

Atomic Energy Commission, 182–183

Bureau of Minerals and Petroleum, 177

Bureau of Mines, 177

derivative contracts, 164

Deutsche Bundesbank (German central bank), 145–146, 162–163

development, 21, 190–191, 245

amateurism and, 194

inventories and, 253

local drivers of, 258

Madagascar Health and, 195

Diamond Development Initiative (DDI), 104

diamonds, 19, 118

Belgian diamond trade and, 123–126, 137

Belgian trade in, 123–126

blood diamond scandals and, 84

brokerage and, 126–130

broker’s knowledge and, 128

certification and, 135–136

commissions and, 131

disintermediation and, 136–138

ethics and, 21, 99–101, 104–107

GemFair and, 107–110

ignorance in brokerage of, 126–133

Kimberley Process and, 101–103

manufacture of, 128

price standardization and, 75

social psychology and, 130–131

tax practices and, 134–135

difference, 68, 73, 76–77

indifference to, 129

meaningfulness and, 146

digital transparency, 100–104, 117–118

blockchain and, 113–116

diamond mining and, 105, 108–110

ethics of invisibility and, 11

impossibility of disclosure and, 19

intermediation and, 8

social life of, 99

verification regimes and, 13

visibility and, 11

digitization, 21, 23

fantasy of immediation and, 215

Indian tea trade and, 37, 44

direct trade, 36, 43, 46

disclosure, 2–3, 16–18

aluminum smelting and, 175

colonialism and, 172

explanans and explanandum of, 7

parceling of, 5

rare earth elements and, 170

sapphire trade and, 67–69

sourcing information and, 55–61

sustainability and, 52, 54, 61–62

Swiss gold trade and, 223–226, 231–232, 236–238

theory of transparency and, 15

total social fact of transparency and, 16

trading relations and, 73

Traidcraft Exchange and, 48–51, 58–59

discretion, 231–232, 234

blockchain and, 157

responsible sourcing and, 236

Swiss gold trade and, 223, 225, 239–240

veridictions and, 229

disintermediation, 61

blockchain and, 115

diamond brokerage and, 127, 135–138

digital transparency and, 117

immediacy and, 18–19

paradox of transparency and, 6–8, 210

public policy and, 212

utopia of, 235

display, 148, 157, 159–161

transparency and, 155

distance, 36

compression of, 20

DIY aid, 192–195, 203

demand side of, 202

entangling nature of, 203

Madagascar Health and, 197–198, 200

do-it-yourself (DIY) principles, 21

documentation, 11

asylum claims and, 218

materiality and, 10

organic rice certification and, 210–211, 213–215, 218

Dodd–Frank Act (2010), 15, 111

dollar-gold convertibility, 149, 161

Don Pedro system, 134–135

Donne, John, 148

Dove, Michael, 91

Dubai Multi Commodity Centre (DMCC) free zone, 236

Dubai, United Arab Emirates, 174, 227, 236

due diligence, 5, 109, 113–116, 118, 225–226

“Know Your Customer” measures and, 135

blockchain and, 159

OECD guidance and, 153

provenance of gold and, 239

ruby mining and, 90, 94

Dunn, Elizabeth, 211

Dutch East India Trading Company, 247

duties, 39, 42

dyadic oppositions, 7, 11

Earthworks, 154

East India Company, 39

Eckert, Julia, 226

ECOFIN, 250–251, 254–257

ecology, 23

e-commerce, 127, 136–137

effective altruism, 202

elites, 81, 83, 89, 174–175

empowerment, 191

artisanal mining and, 105

corporate paternalism and, 117

enclosure, 6

of meaning, 57, 61

Engwicht, Nina, 110

Enlightenment era, 5–6

optical revolution and, 11, 37

Enough Project, 155

environmental, social, and health impact assessment (ESHIA), 93–94

environmentalism, 176, 179

Greenland and, 170, 172–173, 175, 186

performance and, 17

uranium mining and, 183

epistemology, 96

equivalent exchange, 76

ethics

algorithms as ethicopolitical entities and, 13

artisanal mining and, 102, 104, 117

audit culture’s fetishization and, 201

blockchain and, 114–115

certification and, 95

criminalization in the name of, 95

diamond mining and, 99–101, 104–110

digital transparency and, 113

ethics of invisibility and, 112

fair trade markets and, 43

gold supply chains and, 154–156, 163

Indian tea trade and, 35

informal economies and, 89

marketing and, 153

of invisibility, 11

postcolonial states and, 46

responsibilities and, 21

ruby mining and, 84–85, 87

secrecy and, 18

technical claims to transparency and, 82, 95–96

tokenization and, 158

value-making and, 146

visibility and, 186

Europe, 84, 147–148

central bank gold reserves and, 146, 159–163

regulations written in, 92

European Commission, 60, 62

European Union, 54

Conflict Minerals Regulation (2021), 111

tax evasion and, 134

extractive industries, 2, 14, 20

artisanal mining and, 111

climate change and, 20

Greenland and, 169–170, 172–175, 186

sustainability politics and, 2

Swiss servicification and, 231

TAIs and, 190–192 See also cobalt; diamonds; gold; rare earth elements (REEs); rubies; sapphires

Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI), 191

Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative Standard, 152

Facebook, 193, 197–199, 201

Fair Jewellery Action, 178–180

fair trade, 245, 255

direct trade and, 36

Indian tea trade and, 43, 46

Swiss gold trade and, 233–234, 239

Fairmined, 233

Fairtrade, 53, 233

Falls, Susan, 136

farmworker conditions, 48, 50–51, 59

Fassin, Didier, 218

fiat money, 161

fikambananas, 248, 250–251, 254

financial performance

sustainability and, 50, 52, 54, 58–62

fishing, 172, 174

Flyverbom, Mikkel, 8

fossil fuels, 172

Foucault, Michel, 8

free trade, 10, 17

Indian tea trade and, 37, 39, 42, 46

freedom of information laws, 22, 238

frontiers or welfare and resources, 172, 184–185

fundraising, 193, 197–198, 202

Madagascar Health and, 198, 200

Publish What You Fund and, 190–192

GemFair program (De Beers), 19, 100, 107–110, 112, 114

diamond-mining ethics and, 104–107

gender, 130

maleness as value and, 162

Genier, Yves, 231

geology

ruby mining and, 93

Germany, 145–146, 162–163

Germany’s Gold (Thiele), 145

Ghoshal, U. K., 39

gift, enigma of the, 160

global value, 145–146

central bank gold reserves and, 159–164

ethics of invisibility and, 11

gold as, 20, 147–151

servicification and, 231

transparency as, 3–4, 13, 15, 152–153

transparency as a total social fact and, 16

globalization

techno-fixes and, 174

transparency as product of, 8

transparency as value and, 3–23

Godelier, Maurice, 160

gold, 20, 145–147, 152–153, 162–164

as global value, 147–151

blockchain and, 157–159

central bank reserves and, 159–162

decoupling of ethics and business and, 234

diamond fungibility compared to, 129

monetary forms of, 229–233

ownership question and, 238–239

plural forms of, 227–229

price of, 149–151, 160

question of refineries’ ownership of, 238

socio-material purification of, 22

supply chain transparency and, 153–156

Swiss refining industry and, 223–225

Swiss responsible sourcing program for, 233–235, 239

transparency law and, 237–238

veridiction and, 239–240

gold bugs, 150

Gold Investor, 145, 147, 151, 162

gold standard, 148, 161

Gold, Stefan, 56

Golden Rules, 154

governance, 3–5

material practice and, 210

nongovernmental organizations and, 36

semiotic infrastructure and, 210

supply chains and, 2–3, 55–56

sustainability and, 13, 15, 49–50, 59–60, 62

tea supply chains and, 52

governmentality, 7–8

ethics of invisibility and, 11–13

immediacy and, 18

grading, 71–73, 75

diamond brokerage and, 129, 136

Graeber, David, 164

grammar of responsibility, 4

grassroots international NGOs, 192, 194

Great Britain

coercive expertise and, 84

gold standard in, 148

Indian independence from, 36

Indian tea trade and, 36

Green Revolution, 212

Greenland, 20, 169–172, 179–181, 185–186

Aappaluttoq deposit in, 177–179

Bureau of Minerals and Petroleum (BMP), 177–179

colonialism and, 170–172

Greenland Ruby, 176

nation-building and, 174–176

rare earth deposits in, 181–185

techno-fixes and, 173–174

Greenland Minerals and Energy (GME), 182–184

Greenland Ministry of Natural Resources, 185

Greenland Ruby, 176–177, 179–181, 185

Guinea, 227

Gulf state monarchies, 173–174

Günel, Gökçe, 173

Gupta, Aarti, 62

Gutwirth, Jacques, 128, 130

Guyer, Jane, 69, 76

Haavelar, Max, 233

Hajiar, Ismail, 69–73, 77

Hajiar, Nawaz, 66, 75–76

Hajiar, Rizwan, 67

hand gestures, 66–67, 70–73

Hansen, Anne Merrild, 183

Hansen, Thomas Blom, 212

Hasidim

anti-Semitic discourse and, 130

Hastrup, Frieda, 172–173, 181, 184

Heikkurinen, Pasi, 56

Hess, David, 56

Heymann, Terry, 156

Hindu nationalism, 34–35

Hira Foods, 216

hoards, 160

home-rule government, 171–172, 177, 179–180

Hong Kong, 67

ruby-mining industry and, 95

Hughes, Richard, 91

Hull, Matthew, 209, 215

human rights

cobalt mining and, 111–112

diamond mining and, 105

gem mining and, 176

gold as risk sector and, 222

ruby mining and, 95

Swiss gold trade and, 222–223, 229

traceability and, 103

violence against miners and, 86–87

voluntary principles on, 15

hunting, 172, 174

IBM, 115

ideology, 9–11

brokerage and, 128, 133

Greenland’s Ideological State Apparatus, 184

techno-fixes and, 174

transparency and, 8, 219

value-making and, 146

ignorance, 85

diamond brokerage and, 126–133

political economy of, 91

regulation and strategic, 228

illegality, 90–92

artisanal mining and, 87

corporate competition and, 84

informal economies and, 88

ruby mining and, 82–83, 86, 89–90, 93–96

imaginaries, 51, 59, 62

of agriculture, 172

of Greenlandic nationhood, 170, 180

of Indian nationhood, 34

of nature, 23

of resources, 173, 181

of Swiss discretion, 225

sociotechnical systems and, 9, 49, 51

immediacy, 3, 5–6, 18–19

digital compliance systems and, 21

fantasy of, 215

politics of immediation and, 9

spatial–temporal distance and, 36

theory of transparency and, 15

total social fact of transparency and, 23

inclusions, 70, 72–74

independence, 34–39

India, 17

auction centers and, 42–44

Auctions Enquiry Commission and, 38–42

cut-tear-curl tea and, 45–46

diamond brokerage and, 126, 128, 137

Pan-India e-auctions and, 44–45

post-independence reforms and, 36–38

Tata Gold Tea “Jaago Re” campaign and, 33–34

tea’s political symbolism and, 34–36

Indian Ocean sapphire trade, 18, 76–77

Indian Ocean trade networks, 67–69

Indian Tea Association (ITA), 37, 39–40

inflation, 1

informal economies, 104, 133, 234

ethics of, 86–90

gold and, 150

ruby mining and, 81, 83, 90–93

information, 51, 55–56

disclosure of, 48–50, 53–54, 59

enclosure of meaning and, 56–58, 61–62

freedom of, 238

production of, 100

supply chain transparency and, 58

Swiss gold trade and, 237–239

withholding of, 68–69, 128

Initiative for Responsible Mining Assurance (IRMA), 154

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 210

International Council on Mining and Metals, 111

International Council on Mining and Minerals, 156

International Money Laundering Abatement and Anti-Terrorist Financing Act (2001), 135

Inuit Ataqatigiit (IA) party, 185

Inuit people, 171

inventories, 246, 250, 253–255

invisibility, 15

ISEAL Alliance, 53

Islam, 81

“Jaago Re” campaign, 33–34

Jewish community, 125, 128–134, 137–138

Johnstone, Rachael Lorna, 183

Kanna, Ahmed, 173

Kaufmann, Daniel, 117

Kenya, 52–53

Assam tea production in, 48, 50–51, 59

business case for transparency in, 56

Kimberley Process, 15, 101–103, 110

“Know Your Customer” measures, 135

knowledge, 131–133, 135–136

diamond brokerage and, 129

field inventories and, 254

ignorance and, 126, 128

local forms of, 252, 257

organic certification and, 247

Power-Knowledge and, 127

specialization and, 128

written forms of, 251

Kockelman, Paul, 57, 61

Koivisto, Ida, 5–6

Krarup, Poul, 179

Krisch, Nico, 239

Kristoff, Nicholas, 193–194

language ideology, 9

Latour, Bruno, 12, 217, 226

total social fact of transparency and, 12

Laureys, Eric, 130

Le Billon, Phillippe, 112

legal frameworks, 225

bank secrecy and, 231–232

business secrecy and, 237–238

gold’s mode of existence and, 233

soft law of voluntary conduct and, 226

Swiss gold trade and, 222–224, 227–230, 234–236, 238–240

true qualities and, 21

truth and, 16

legibility, 211, 213

legitimacy, 102, 104, 112, 114, 118

gold and, 229, 232, 235

traceability and, 218

transparency discourses and, 2, 8, 210

World Bank and, 87

lens metaphor, 16, 20

Greenland mining industries and, 170, 173, 176, 181

mediation and, 9

transparency and, 4, 185

Leviathan and the Air-Pump (Shapin and Schaffer), 12

Levine, Davd S., 237

Levitt, Theresa, 37, 40

liberalization, 43, 45–46

Lien, Marianne, 172–173, 181, 184

liquidity, 22, 158, 163, 230–231, 234

lithium batteries, 19, 110

local actors, 2, 193

aid projects and, 195, 203

elder councils as, 252

fikambananas and, 248, 250

Madagascar Health and, 196–201

organic certification and, 256–258

transparency and, 246–247

written knowledge and, 252–253

London Bullion Market Association (LBMA), 153–158, 224–225

Good Delivery Standard, 228

Swiss gold trade and, 228, 232, 236, 239

London Good Delivery List, 153

London Stock Exchange, 93

London, England, 223, 230

Luning, Sabine, 93

Lutheranism, 171

Lynch, Michael, 218

Madagascar, 22, 67

DIY aid and, 192–196

Madagascar Health and, 196–197, 201–204

Madagascar Health volunteers and, 197–201

smallholder vanilla production and, 246–248

vanilla and, 246, 255–258

vanilla inventories and, 253–255

vanilla trade and, 248–250

VOKATRA and, 250–251

written agreements and, 251–253

Madagascar Health, 195–197, 201–203

volunteers and, 197–201

Madsen, Niles, 178–179

Maendeleo Diamond Standards (MDS), 104

Malagasy, 20

Mali, 227

marginalization, 15

marketing

Indian tea trade and, 33–34, 38, 45

value-making and, 146

markets

as performance, 71

brokerage and, 130

collapse of tea and, 43

commodity futures and, 129

quality of, 17, 42–46

sustainability and, 49–52, 58–59, 61–62

transparency and, 45–47

Marx, Karl, 228

Marxist analysis, 184

Masco, Joseph, 10

Mason, Michael, 59

materiality

documentation and, 10

governance and, 210

Indian tea trade and, 34, 37, 42, 44

organic certification and, 213, 217

quality and, 45

spreadsheets and, 255

transparency and, 37–38, 45–47

truth and, 21

veridiction and, 227, 240

visibility and, 185–187

Maurer, William, 236

Mauss, Marcel, 3

Maystadt, Phillipe, 134

Mazzarella, William, 9, 12, 211

rise of e-governance and, 215

meaning

difference and, 146

digital transparency and, 117

enclosure of, 61

power and, 99–100

relation between relations as, 57

mediation, 5–9

blockchain and, 113–114

commodity circulation and, 14

diamond brokerage and, 127, 130, 135

ideology and, 9

oligoptica as, 12–13

paradox of, 6–7

parceling of disclosure and, 5

supply chain capitalism and, 23

theory of transparency and, 15

transparency as process of, 61–62

unmediated transparency and, 99

visibility and, 11–15 See also disintermediation

Mejia, Jorge, 197

meta-charities, 202

metaphor, 5–7

Mineral Resources Act of Greenland (1999), 177

mining, 14–15

ethics of invisibility and, 11

extractivism and, 20

immediacy and, 19

opacity and, 4

resource imaginaries and, 173

sustainability politics and, 2

tin, tungsten and tantalum (3Ts) in, 112

transparency and, 9 See also cobalt; diamonds; gold; rare earth elements (REEs); rubies; sapphires

mining pass system, 91–92

Mintz, Sidney, 99–100

Mirza, Sakhila, 157

Miyazaki, Hirokazu, 77

Modi, Narendra, 34–35

monetary gold, 148–149, 161, 232, 234, 238, 240

gold as commodity and, 227–231

gold’s association with, 151

money laundering, 134–135

gold as risk sector and, 222

Money Laundering Act, 230

Swiss gold trade and, 236

Mozambique, 82–85, 90

accountability and, 185

Greenland and, 179

informal economies in, 88–89

insurgency and, 81–82

mining boom in, 85–86

mining codes in, 91–92, 95

Mueller, Milton, 117

Mulla, Sameena, 21

Muslims, 138

sapphire trade and, 76

Myanmar, 85, 179

accountability and, 185

nationalism, 35

Greenland and, 172

nationalization, 38–39

nation-building, 169–170

colonialism and, 170–172

Greenland and, 173–176, 184–185

nature, extraction of rents from, 21

Nazism, 229

negotiation, 67–73, 77

performance and, 71

transparency as, 246

Nehru, Jawaharlal, 38, 43

neocolonialism, 117

white savior fantasies and, 193

neodymium, 182, 186

neoliberalism, 15, 46

sustainability and, 49, 51, 57

techno-fixes and, 174

NEPCon, 53

Nixon, Richard, 149

“No Dirty Gold” campaign, 154

non-governmental organizations (NGOs), 36, 46

artisanal mining and, 235

DIY aid and, 192, 194–195

multi-national corporations and, 60

Swiss activist coalition and, 222–226, 232, 235–237, 240

normative criteria, 4, 7

noticing, art of, 75

nuclear governance, 210

Nuttall, Mark, 172, 183

Nuuk Gemstone Guild, 179–180

objectivity

documentation and, 11

objects, 3, 11

nodes of mediation and, 264

semiotics of, 57, 217

social life of, 99

sociotechnical forms of, 213

visibility’s triangular relationship with, 239

occlusion, 45, 67–69

offshore outsourcing, 236–237

Olsen, Ilannguaq Lennert, 179–180

Omandi, Evans, 56, 60

“On Alternating Sounds” (Boas), 6

ontology, 12

causation and, 50–51, 56–57, 62

claims on nature and, 21

gold and, 228

individuals-as-citizens and, 240

of gold, 227–228, 232

of offshore trade, 227

truth and, 15

opacity, 4

ambiguity and, 60

anthropology of, 10

as ethical action, 85

asymmetric exchange and, 76

blockchain and, 159

boundary-making and, 7

causal ontology and, 62

causal relationships and, 49

conventional opposition to, 23

Enlightenment era and, 37

gold supply chain and, 155

Greenland mining and, 170, 172, 180, 184, 186

Indian tea trade and, 35, 44

international aid and, 204

opaque exchanges and, 17

paradoxical transparency and, 55

postcolonialism and, 46–47

right to, 8

ruby mining and, 82, 90, 96

transparency as a technomoral value and, 211

transparency technologies and, 151

vanilla trade and, 245–246, 258

operationalization, 5

Oppenheim, Robert, 12

optical revolution, 5, 11–13, 38

oral agreements, 134, 251–252

organic certification, 21–22, 218–219, 245–247

conversion and, 216–217

Indian rice and, 209–210, 212–214

market deregulation and, 250

pesticides and, 251, 257

smallholder vanilla production and, 247–248

traceability and, 214–217

vanilla and, 250–251, 253–258

written agreements and, 251–253

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 111

artisanal gold mining and, 233

Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains of Minerals from Conflict-Affected and High-Risk Areas, 153, 224

high-risk sources of gold and, 236

Responsible Mineral Supply Chains Forum, 101

over-the-counter markets (OTC), 157

ownership, 22, 223, 238–240

Pakistan, 210

pan-India e-auction, 37, 44–45

panopticon, 8, 12, 234

paper-based certification, 101–102, 116, 134

trade agreements and, 251–253

paradox of transparency, 55, 61, 210

Peace Corps, 250

pearls, 66–67

Peebles, Gustav, 160

perception, 6

performance, 15, 17, 70–71

audit culture and, 152

consumer-centered forms of, 115

immediacy and, 21

personal protective equipment (PPE), 92

Pistor, Katharina, 225

plantation system, 35–39, 43, 45

political technology, 10, 210–211

politics, 19–20

power in, 4–5

truth regimes and, 218

populism, 34, 36

postcolonialism, 35–36, 38–39, 43, 45–46

power, 211–212, 218

display and, 148

invisibility as, 96

meaning and, 99–100

politics of, 4–5

Power-Knowledge and, 127

“Power of 49” campaign, 33–34

Power, Michael, 211–212

precarity, 15

Precious Mineral Trading Unit (PMTU), 108

privacy, 8

procurement, 216, 222, 232

provenance, 22, 227

blockchain and, 116

digital technologies and, 104

liquidity and, 234

ruby value and, 186

secrecy and, 231

Swiss gold trade and, 229, 232, 238–240

taxes and, 235

publicity, explanans and explanandum of, 7

Publish What You Fund (PWYF), 190–192

aid transparency index from, 202

Publish What You Pay (PWYP), 191

purification of gold, 22, 224, 227–228, 240

QR codes, 103, 107

quality, 41–46, 152

truth and, 21

racialized suspicion, 137, 209, 219

Rainforest Alliance, 53, 60, 62

Rapaport pricing reports (RapNet), 136

rare earth elements (REEs), 20, 170, 181–185

RCS Global, 115

recycled gold, 224, 227, 235

Red Cross, 52

refineries, 153, 224–225, 228–229, 236–238

chain of custody protocols and, 157

corporate social responsibility and, 234, 239

discretion and, 223–224

gold as commodity vs. currency and, 230

secrecy and, 232

transparency and, 233

reflexivity, 7

reform, 37

post-independence India and, 38–41

regulation, 228

Competent Persons Reports and, 93

Indian tea trade and, 35–37, 41–42, 44–46

Mozambique’s mining codes, 83–84, 91–92, 95

self-regulation and, 224–226

Swiss gold trade and, 229–232, 235, 237, 240

taxation and, 89

World Bank and, 86, 91–92

renewable energy, 173

rents, 21

reputation, 58, 202, 234

gold as rational investment and, 151

risks to, 84, 111, 116–118, 131, 164

ReSource, 116

Responsible Gold Mining Principles (RGMP), 156

Responsible Minerals Initiative (RMI), 111, 116

Responsible Minerals Initiative Blockchain Guidelines, 121

Responsible Sourcing Blockchain Network (RSBN), 115

Responsible Sourcing Programme, 224

revelation, 218

game of, 21, 211–212

technology and, 3

rice, 21, 210, 213, 216–217 See also organic certification

risk assurance, 107–109

risk sectors, 222, 233, 235–236

human rights abuses and, 229

money laundering and, 230

Roger Kirschen & Company, 134

Rohtert, William, 177–178, 181

Roitman, Janet, 89

rubies, 85–88

Aappaluttoq and, 176–178, 181

certification and, 90

Competent Persons Reports and, 93–95

ethical responsibility and, 82–85, 95–96

Greenland Ruby and, 176–177, 179–181

informal economy of, 86–91

mine conditions and, 94

mining laws and, 91–93

Mozambican insurgency and, 81–82

paradox of responsible sourcing and, 18

resource imaginaries and, 181

Rupee companies, 38–41

Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGA), 212

Samarawickrema, Nethra, 85

Sampson, Steven, 51

sapphires, 18, 20, 66–68, 72–74

Aappaluttoq deposit and, 176

asymmetric exchange and, 76–77

craftsmanship and, 68–69

difference and, 68

hand gestures and, 66–67

negotiating performance and, 69–71

occlusion and, 69

scarcity, 160

Schnable, Allison, 194–195

Schoenberger, Erica, 160

Schumann, William, 60

science and technology studies, 21

Scott, James, 35

secrecy, 2

commercial value of, 237

conventional opposition to, 23

craft of trade and, 68

disclosure and, 17–18

display and, 157, 159

relationship and, 73

Swiss gold trade and, 223–225, 227, 229–232

transparency technologies and, 151

valuation and, 66

veridictions and, 238–239

security, voluntary principles on, 15

Seeing Like a State (Scott), 35

segmented networks, 68, 77

Sejersen, Frank, 172, 174–175

self-regulation, 224–226

self-rule, 171–172, 177, 179–180

semantics, 11

semiotics, 13, 17, 21

gold and, 147

ideology and, 9–10

social relations of economic systems and, 127

tags and, 217

technology and, 209–210

Sennett, Richard, 68–69

Shaffer, Simon, 12

Shapin, Steven, 12

shareholders, 59, 61

Sharma, Aradhana, 211

Shield, Renee Rose, 129–130

Shore, Chris, 152

Shuman, Sam, 85

Sierra Leone, 19, 100–101, 104

corporate paternalism and, 117

De Beers and, 107

GemFair and, 114

Kimberley Process in, 110

silver, 148

Simmel, Georg, 7, 133, 229

Sinhalese traders, 76

Siumut party, 185

smallholder farms, 246–247, 252, 258

Smith, James, 112

social media, 193, 197–199, 201

social performance, 17

social relations, 99, 201

accountability and, 11, 21

asymmetric exchange and, 76

digital transparency and, 100, 110, 117

everydayness of, 116

Facebook and, 193, 197–199, 201

gold’s social value and, 160

Indian tea trade and, 44–45

of economic systems, 127

performance and, 71

social life of things and, 99

vanilla trade and, 254

social terrain mapping, 87

sociotechnical systems, 9, 13, 45, 49, 51

objectivity and, 11

organic certification and, 213

true qualities and, 21

truth and, 16

sorting, 74–77

sourcing, 18, 59

contamination of, 234

corporate-run systems of, 112

offshore gold trade and, 237

Swiss gold trade and, 223–227, 229, 232–233

tea industry and, 48, 50–51, 57

veridiction and, 236 See also corporate social responsibility (CSR) movement; supply chains; transparency

South Africa, 229

South America, 234

Sovacool, Benjamin, 191

sovereignty, 36, 147, 171

trust and, 19–20

spatial representation, 12

spatial-temporal distance, 36

Spiegel, Samuel, 112

Sri Lanka, 67, 74, 88–89, 95

sapphire trade and, 68

yellow sapphires mined in, 76

stakeholders, 190–191, 202–203

DIY aid and, 192, 194–195

trust and, 197, 201

standardization, 45

development of, 52–55

diamond certification and, 135–136

Swiss gold trade and, 228

standards, 217

state policy and interests, 89–90

“state life” and “real life” of, 212

collateral damage of, 138

Indian tea trade and, 35–37, 46–47

seeing and, 45

status, 75–76

Sterling companies, 38–39, 41

Stocking, George, 6

Strathern, Marilyn, 10, 13

substantive criteria, 4, 7

sugar trade, 99

supply chains, 23

“Who picked my tea?’” campaign and, 49

appropriation of nature by, 16

as ignorance chains, 127

blockchain custody chains and, 158–159

central bank gold reserves and, 146, 151–156

digital transparency and, 19

direct trade and, 36

ethical value chains and, 163

governance and, 2–3

informal economies and, 88

organic certification and, 256

panoptic view of, 233–234

ruby-mining industry and, 83, 85, 90

spatial representation and, 12

sustainability and, 55–56

tea industry and, 50–53, 57–58, 61

transparency and, 1–2, 4–5, 7–8, 13–15, 245–246

vanilla organic certification and, 258

written agreements and, 251 See also corporate social responsibility (CSR) movement; sourcing; transparency

supply-driven aid, 197, 202

sustainability, 1–2, 4–5, 48–50, 54–56, 61–62

artisanal mining and, 111

blockchain and, 115–116

corporate finance and, 17

digital transparency and, 103

extractivism and, 13–16

information and, 57–59

responsibility and, 21

Traidcraft Exchange and, 50–52

transparency and, 52–54

visibility and, 11–12

Sustainable Development Goals (United Nations), 2

swadeshi commodities, 38, 42

Sweetness and Power (Mintz), 99

swidden agriculture, 91

Swiss Better Gold Association, 233, 236

Swiss Federal Court, 237

Switzerland, 22, 102, 229–232, 235–239

Financial Market Supervisory Authority, 230

gold corporate responsibility coalition in, 222–226

gold trade and, 223–224, 227–228, 233–235

national tourist office, 231

Secretariat for Economic Affairs, 232

veridiction and, 239–240

tactility, 37, 40–42

tags, 112

organic rice certification and, 210, 216–217

Tanbreez deposit, 181–185

Tarus, Daniel Kipkirong, 56, 60

Tata Gold Tea, 33–34, 45–46

Taussig, Michael, 228, 232

taxes, 134–135, 222

gold as medium of exchange and, 227

Mozambican ruby mining industry and, 84, 88–90

raw and recycled gold and, 235

tea duties and, 39, 42

zwart geld and, 134

tea, 17

auction centers and, 42–44

Auctions Enquiry Commission and, 38–42

blends and, 40–41

cut-tear-curl tea and, 45–46

diamond brokerage and, 129

Fairtrade and, 53

marginalized workers and, 59

Pan-India e-auctions and, 44–45

political symbolism of, 34–36

post-independence reforms and, 36–38

supply chain transparency and, 57–58, 61

sustainability and, 48–49

Tata Gold “Jaago Re” campaign and, 33–34

Traidcraft Exchange and, 50–52

Tea Board of India (TBI), 36–37, 39, 41–42, 44–46

Tea Marketing Control Order (TMCO), 42–43, 45

Teaotia, Rita, 44

technology, 100–101, 111, 209–210

human rights and, 112

rare earth elements and, 170, 182

techno-fixes and, 173–176, 179, 184

technomoral politics and, 113, 210–211

techno-optimistic belief and, 103, 117

telecommunications infrastructure, 193

tertius gaudens (“a rejoicing third”), 130, 133

Thailand, 87–89, 95, 180

Thiele, Carl-Ludwig, 145, 147, 149, 153

things, social life of, 99

third-party verification, 19, 100, 113, 115

Thunberg, Greta, 34

total social facts, 12

formation of, 3

transparency as, 23

traceability, 15

as morally-driven projects, 257

blockchain and, 113–117

cobalt mining and, 112–114

diamond mining and, 105, 108–110

digital transparency and, 99–101, 103–104, 118

Greenland ruby mining and, 176, 180

immediation and, 21

Kimberley Process certification and, 103

oral forms of, 251–252

organic certification and, 245–246

organic rice certification and, 213, 216–218

production and consumption scales and, 99

ruby-mining industry and, 95

Swiss gold trade and, 223, 228, 232–234, 240

Tracenet and, 214–216

written knowledge and, 22

Tracenet, 214–216

trade agreements, 251–253

trade networks, 67–69, 72–73, 75

as transnational and segmented, 77

asymmetric exchange and, 76–77

craftsmanship and, 68–69

negotiation and, 72–73

sapphire trade and, 66–72

valuation and, 74–77

Traidcraft Exchange, 48–51, 58–62

transparency

as technical claim, 82, 95–96

blockchain and, 116

central bank gold reserves and, 159, 162–164

coercive expertise and, 90

data and, 60

definitions, vocabulary and grammar of, 4–6

diamond brokerage and, 136–138

digital forms of, 99–101, 103–104, 113, 115

discourses of, 210–211

DIY aid and, 192–196

economic forms of, 255–256

empowerment and, 51

ethics of invisibility and, 112

extractivism and, 14, 183, 185–186

fallacy of, 56, 117

GemFair and, 105–106, 108

gold blockchain custody chains and, 156–159

gold supply chain and, 153–156

gold value-making and, 145–147, 151–153

Greenland and, 172

Greenland government’s practice and, 175

Greenland ruby mining and, 176–177, 179, 181

ideal of government, 235

ideologies of, 9–11

Indian tea trade and, 33–36, 45–46

information and, 55–60

international aid and, 202–204

legitimacy and, 118

local forms of, 246

local processes of accountability and, 253

Madagascar Health and, 197–198, 200–201

mediation as paradox of, 5–9

mining codes and, 92

operationalization of, 245

optical revolution and, 38

organic certification and, 246–247, 257–258

organic rice certification and, 209–210, 212–213, 215–216

political representation and, 60

politics of, 240

procurement and, 232

Publish What You Fund and, 190–192

regimes of, 127, 133, 135–136

responsible mining and, 82, 84–85, 95–96

social life of, 110

spreadsheets and, 255

sustainability and, 48–55, 61–62

sustainability politics and, 1–2

Swiss federal law and, 236

Swiss gold trade and, 223–227, 233

tax payments and, 88, 90

tea auctions and, 43–44

technical ambiguities and, 56, 60

theory of, 15–16

truth-telling and, 211–212, 218–219

veridiction and, 229–230, 238–240

visibility and, 11–13, 40

vision and, 169–170

welfare states and, 185

written knowledge and, 251–252

zombie forms of, 116

transparency and accountability initiatives (TAI), 21, 190–193, 196, 201–203

Madagascar Health and, 197

Transparency International (TI), 103, 152

transparenting, 51, 62

tributor-supporter relationships, 106

Trouillot, Rolph, 96

True North Gems, 177–178

trust, 3, 19–21

DIY aid and, 192, 197–198

language brokering and, 200

local networks of, 252

Madagascar Health and, 200–201

spreadsheets and, 255

TAIs and, 202

theory of transparency and, 15

total social fact of transparency and, 23

truth, 3, 21–23

experimental production of, 12

modes of enunciation and, 226

modes of existence and, 227

organic rice certification and, 209–210, 218–219

revelation and, 211

theory of transparency and, 15

total social fact of transparency and, 23

veridictions and, 223, 238

truth regimes, 22, 209, 218–219

Tsing, Anna, 71

Ukraine War, 102

Unilever, 48, 50, 57, 59–61

Sustainable Living Plan and, 61

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), 43

United Arab Emirates, 236

United Kingdom, 17

Indian tea trade and, 37, 39, 41

Mozambican ruby mining company from, 81–83, 86–88, 90, 94

plantation system and, 35

tea duties and, 39

United Nations (UN), 62

Conference on Trade and Development, 4

South African gold embargo and, 229

sustainability reporting and, 54

Sustainable Development Goals and, 2

traceability defined by, 103

United States, 135

nuclear weapons production and, 185

United States Department of Agriculture organic standards and, 217

vanilla trade and, 249

uranium, 182–186

nuclear weapons production and, 185

Uttarakhand Organic Commodity Board, 212–215

“A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” (Donne), 148

valorization, 17, 69, 74

valuation, 69–71

certification and, 136

Indian tea trade and, 44

organoleptic forms of, 40, 45

sapphire trade and, 67

value, 2–3, 16, 22, 151–153

blockchain chains of custody and, 159

bounded universes of statements and, 239

central bank gold reserves and, 159–164

extraction transparency and, 115

gemstones and, 90–91

gold and, 145–147, 156

gold supply chain and, 154

gold’s symbolism and, 148–149

instability and, 149

opacity and, 69

sapphire trade and, 74–77

value-making, 146–147, 151, 163

Van Bockstael, Steven, 84, 155

vanilla, 22, 246–247, 250–251

global market for, 248–249

inventories of, 253–254

organic certification and, 246, 256–258

price collapse of, 249–250

smallholder production of, 247–248

spreadsheet inventories and, 255

written agreements and, 251–253

Varna, necropolis of, 160

verbal contracts, 22

veridiction, 22, 223, 226–228, 236–240

decoupling of ethics and business in, 235

gold as monetary asset and, 230, 232

three types of, 229

verification, 11, 13

Swiss gold trade and, 223, 226, 235, 240

trust and, 20

visibility, 169–170

Enlightenment and, 37

free trade and, 39

Indian tea trade and, 35–37, 40

materiality and, 185–186

primacy of the visual and, 175

social relations and, 45

Swiss gold trade and, 222–223, 225–226, 234, 237, 239–240

technomanagerial forms of, 211

veridictions and, 229

visualizations of the future and, 173

Vleeschdrager, Eddy, 134

VOKATRA, 250–251, 257

voluntary frameworks, 15, 52, 54, 145, 161

volunteers, 193–194, 197–201, 203

wakkuwa (optic axis), 70, 72

Wales, parliament of, 60

Weeks, Samuel, 227

Weichselbraun, Anna, 210

welfare state societies, 172, 184–185

West Africa, 83, 88, 224

West, Harry, 211

whiteness, 162

“Who picked my tea?” campaign, 49, 61

Williams, Raymond, 187

wind energy technology, 182–183

women’s empowerment, 33

Assam tea production and, 48, 50–51

World Bank, 83, 86–87, 91–92

World Business Council for Sustainable Development, 54

World Fair Trade Organization (WFTO), 53, 56, 59–60

World Gold Council, 145, 151, 154–156

price stabilization and, 160

RGMP and, 155–156

World War II, 229

Wright, Susan, 152

yttrium, 182, 186

zombie transparency, 116

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