This book aims to understand Mexico’s anomalous behavior as a middle power in world politics. The author centers the argument on the absence of consistency in Mexico’s foreign policy, which is not in line with what would be expected of a relevant actor of its demographic and economic weight. What makes this book different from previous work on Mexico is that it goes beyond material factors and structural dynamics to understand the country’s behavior in terms of international relations and foreign policy. Using role theory as a theoretical framework, the book seeks to understand foreign policy from a cognitive and social standpoint—that is, by exploring and making sense of decision-makers’ conceptions of the state in international politics based on internalized expectations in accordance with specific external and internal circumstances. Likewise, it takes the concept of a middle power and dissects it into specific “roles” (expectations attached to social position), namely: seeker of regional leadership, coalition builder, mediator, bridge, good international citizen, and supporter of multilateralism.
The book’s central hypothesis regarding Mexico’s irregular behavior is supported by three case studies: first, Mexico’s position at the UN Security Council during the Iraq crisis; second, Mexico’s ambition to demonstrate regional leadership in multilateral organizations such as the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC); and third, Mexico’s commitment to liberal values, human rights, and the promotion of democracy. According to the author, Mexico is caught between two main policy orientations that produce inconsistencies in how it conducts its foreign relations. On one hand, a traditional and nationalistic position guides its foreign policy principles. In contrast, a more pragmatic and technocratic view is shaped by material interests. Additionally, contextual elements influence Mexico’s policy, such as its proximity to the United States, cultural ties with Latin America, international crises, and the specific leadership of each president. Likewise, internal factors that may affect its behavior include bureaucratic politics, public opinion, and political conflict between the executive and legislative branches.
After a well-documented review of Mexico’s foreign policy history from the early twentieth century until the political transition of 2000, the author introduces the three main cases. The first case examines Mexico’s opposition to the Iraq invasion in 2002/2003 at the heart of the UN Security Council. The roles associated with this decision align with the idea of being a “good international citizen,” a “supporter of multilateralism,” and a “bridge-builder.” According to Loera-González, Mexico was in a particularly difficult situation given the interests at stake, in particular, the ambition to reach an agreement with George W. Bush’s administration to legalize millions of Mexicans living illegally in the United States. Ultimately, the country rejected the invasion, but at a very high political cost, which significantly deteriorated its relationship with its northern neighbor. This case demonstrates how Mexico’s traditional and nationalistic foreign policy stance prevailed over pragmatism. The case study is solid, and there is little doubt about how Mexico became trapped between two conflicting orientations while facing pressure from a far more powerful counterpart. However, it would be worth considering a counterfactual scenario: if Mexico had supported the US invasion of Iraq in pursuit of its pragmatic interests, how would this be categorized? Would this indicate that Mexico was behaving as a “typical” rather than an anomalous middle power?
The second case examines Mexico’s involvement in the creation and performance of CELAC. According to the author, the country’s participation in this organization reflected a notable attempt to regain “regional leadership,” act as a “coalition builder,” and “support multilateralism.” Mexico’s involvement in CELAC was far more prominent than in other initiatives such as the Pacific Alliance, the Mesoamerican Project, or the Ibero-American Summit. The anomaly, according to Loera-González, lies in Mexico’s retreat from the organization due to ideological reasons and domestic politics. Once again, it is evident how Mexico’s foreign policy management and direction clashed between its traditional stance and a more practical approach. However, one could argue that despite Mexico’s traditional position in favor of Latin America—which sustained much of its foreign policy rhetoric throughout the twentieth century—this stance never materialized into close economic and political ties with the region. Thus, it could be questioned whether Mexico’s retreat from CELAC is truly anomalous.
The third case explores Mexico’s engagement with liberal values in its foreign policy, specifically the promotion of human rights and democracy. According to the author, Mexico has taken contradictory positions in various instances regarding Latin America. For example, it supported Panama’s suspension from the Group of Eight on the grounds of defending democracy while simultaneously upholding the principle of non-intervention. Similarly, Mexico clashed with Cuba and Venezuela during Vicente Fox’s (2000–2006) administration. In this sense, Mexico attempted to act as a “good international citizen,” a “supporter of multilateralism,” and a “coalition builder.” However, by advocating for liberal values with the aim of developing a new identity as a “Western democracy,” Mexico alienated many internal and external actors who had previously viewed it as a legitimate mediator in Latin America, ultimately hindering its regional leadership. It is evident that Mexico’s self-perception did not align with the expectations of others regarding its role in Latin America, preventing it from exerting greater influence in regional politics. While the argument is compelling, Loera-González potentially overlooks an important domestic issue—Mexico’s longstanding history of human rights violations, which could have contributed to the discrepancy between its aspirations to be a liberal and democratic champion and other actors’ perceptions.
In general, the book makes three major contributions. First, it demonstrates how role theory can be operationalized to better understand countries’ behavior in terms of foreign policy by presenting relevant empirical evidence. Second, it reaffirms the importance of the concept of middle power in the study of international relations and world politics. Third, it explores Mexico’s unique case beyond traditional perspectives focused on material or structural variables, thereby shedding light on the intricate internal and external factors that influence the foreign decision-making process.
However, the book is not without criticism. First, the author argues that Mexico is an anomalous middle power because it does not act as one. But how can we be certain that this is truly the case? Arguably, it could be said that other middle powers have also fallen short in fulfilling every single role associated with the category. Relatedly, the way in which Loera-González operationalizes the concept of middle power appears somewhat discretionary; it is not clear what threshold of roles is required for a country to be considered a middle power. Likewise, the book adopts the concept from a largely uncritical perspective, without fully addressing the potential conflicts between some of the roles (for example, in certain cases, seeking regional leadership might not necessarily align with being a good international citizen). Lastly, there are other well-known recent episodes that would have merited discussion—two in particular: first, the diplomatic humiliation of Mexico at the OAS Summit in Cancún in 2017, where not even the small Caribbean nations supported its attempt to condemn Venezuela; and second, Mexico’s visible leadership in climate change efforts during Felipe Calderón’s administration (2006–2012).
Nonetheless, Loera-González’s book makes an outstanding contribution to the understanding of Mexico’s international relations, as it advances novel theoretical frameworks and presents well-dissected empirical evidence. While the book is primarily aimed at scholars and experts in international relations, foreign policy, and public policy, its detailed case presentations and clear explanations make it accessible to a broader audience with limited prior knowledge of the subject. Certainly, this work is a mandate reference for any scholar seeking to better understand the complex dynamics that shape Mexico’s place in world politics, as well as those of other middle and emerging powers in Latin America and beyond.
