Amateur and professional athletes often consume protein supplements to accelerate muscle gain; however, it has been suggested that these products not only are associated with risks when consumed excessively. Several recent reports have indicated that certain products are contaminated with heavy metals. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to investigate protein powders in Hungary for heavy metal contamination. A total of 22 commercially available protein powders (including whey, vegan, and beef based) were purchased on the internet for testing. We analysed the samples using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) to assess heavy metal contamination. The products were analysed for the presence of 16 elements (Be, Al, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, As, Se, Rb, Cd, Sb, Cs, Ba, Hg, and Pb). The LIBS spectral analysis revealed the characteristics of the protein elements (C, C2, H, N, and O) and alkaline metals (Ca, Na, K, and Mg), which were consistent with the previous results. Neither LIBS nor ICP-MS measurements detected significant heavy metal content in the investigated samples above the limit specified in the regulations. Heavy metal contamination of protein supplements can be a serious health threat. Based on the varied results of the previous studies, it is prudent to include testing for heavy metals as part of the routine and mandatory quality control of these products.

The effect of nature and pressure of ambient environment on laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) and ablation mechanisms of silicon (Si) have been investigated. A Q-switched Nd-YAG laser with the wavelength of 1064 nm, pulse duration of 10 ns, and pulsed energy of 50 mJ was employed. Si targets were exposed under ambient environments of inert gases of argon, neon, and helium for different pressures ranging from 5 to 760 torr. The influence of nature and pressure of ambient gases on the emission intensity of Si plasma have been explored by using the LIBS spectrometer system. The plasma parameters such as electron temperature and number density were determined by applying Boltzmann plot and Stark broadening method, respectively. Our experimental results suggest that the nature and pressure of ambient environment play a significant role for generation, recombination, and expansion of plasma and consequently affect the excitation temperature as well as electron density of plasma. The surface morphological analysis of laser-irradiated Si was performed by using scanning electron microscope (SEM). Various kinds of structures, for example laser-induced periodic surface structures or ripples, cones, droplets, and craters have been generated and their density and size are found to be strongly dependent upon the ambient environment. A quantitative analysis of particulate size and crater depth measured from SEM images showed a strong correlation between plasma parameters and the growth of micro/nanostructures on the modified Si surface.

Spatial confinement effects on plasma parameters and surface morphology of laser-ablated Mg are studied by introducing a metallic blocker as well as argon (Ar) gas at different pressures. Nd: YAG laser at various fluences ranging from 7 to 28 J/cm2 was employed to generate Mg plasma. Confinement effects offered by metallic blocker are investigated by placing the blocker at different distances of 6, 8, and 10 mm from the target surface; whereas spatial confinement offered by environmental gas is explored under four different pressures of 5, 10, 20, and 50 Torr. Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy analysis revealed that both plasma parameters, that is, excitation temperature and electron number density initially are strongly dependent upon both pressures of environmental gases and distances of blockers. The maximum electron temperature of Mg plasma is achieved at Ar gas pressure of 20 Torr, whereas maximum electron number density is achieved at 50 Torr. It is also observed that spatial confinement offered by metallic blocker is responsible for the significant enhancement of both electron temperature and electron number density of Mg plasma. Maximum values of electron temperature and electron number density without blocker are 8335 K and 2.4 × 1016 cm−3, respectively, whereas these values are enhanced to 12,200 K and 4 × 1016 cm−3 in the presence of blocker. Physical mechanisms responsible for the enhancement of Mg plasma parameters are plasma compression, confinement and pronounced collisional excitations due to reflection of shock waves. Scanning electron microscope analysis was performed to explore the surface morphology of laser-ablated Mg. It reveals the formation of ripples and channels that become more distinct in the presence of blocker due to plasma confinement. The optimum combination of blocker distance, fluence and Ar pressure can identify the suitable conditions for defining the role of plasma parameters for surface structuring.

The effect of the transverse magnetic field on laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy and surface modifications of germanium (Ge) has been investigated at various fluences. Ge targets were exposed to Nd: YAG laser pulses (1064 nm, 10 ns, 1 Hz) at different fluences ranging from 3 to 25.6 J/cm2 to generate Ge plasma under argon environment at a pressure of 50 Torr. The magnetic field of strength 0.45 Tesla perpendicular to the direction of plasma expansion was employed by using two permanent magnets. The emission spectra of laser-induced Ge plasma was detected by the laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy system. The electron temperature and number density of Ge plasma are evaluated by using the Boltzmann plot and stark broadening methods, respectively. The variations in emission intensity, electron temperature (Te), and number density (ne) of Germanium plasma are explored at various fluences, with and without employment of the magnetic field. It is observed that the magnetic field is responsible for significant enhancement of both excitation temperature and number density at all fluences. It is revealed that an excitation temperature increases from Te,max,without B = 16,190 to Te,max,with B = 20,123 K. Similarly, the two times enhancement in the electron density is observed from ne,max,without B = 2 × 1018 to ne,max,with B = 4 × 1018 cm−3. The overall enhancement in Ge plasma parameters in the presence of the magnetic field is attributed to the Joule heating effect and adiabatic compression. With increasing fluence both plasma parameters increase and achieve their maxima at a fluence of 12.8 J/cm2 and then decrease. In order to correlate the plasma parameters with surface modification, scanning electron microscope analysis of irradiated Ge was performed. Droplets and cones are formed for both cases. However, the growth of ridges and distinctness of features is more pronounced in case of the absence of the magnetic field; whereas surface structures become more diffusive in the presence of the magnetic field.

The influence of nature and pressure of ambient environment on the surface modification, plasma parameters, hardness, and corrosion resistance of Mg-alloy has been investigated. Nd: YAG laser (1064 nm, 10 ns, 25 mJ) at a fluence of 1.3 J cm−2 has been employed as an irradiation source. Targets of Mg-alloy were exposed in the ambient environments of argon (Ar), neon (Ne), and helium (He) at pressures ranging from 5 to 760 Torr. Scanning electron microscope has been employed to investigate the surface morphology of the irradiated targets. It reveals the formation of cavities, cones, droplets, ripples, and islands on the surface of the irradiated sample. Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy technique was employed to measure electron temperature (Te) and electron number density (Ne) of Mg-alloy. The value of electron temperature ranges from 6628 to 12,855 K, whereas the value of electron number density varies from 5.4 × 1017 to 19.2 × 1017 cm−3. The maximum Te and Ne are observed in Ar and minimum in case of He. It was also revealed that both the surface morphology and plasma parameters are strongly dependent upon nature and pressure of environmental gases. The maxima of Te is achieved at a pressure of 10 Torr for all the three ambient environments that is, Ar, Ne, and He; whereas maxima of Ne is achieved at different pressures, that is, at 760 Torr for Ar, at 200 Torr for Ne, and at 50 Torr for He. The hardness and corrosion resistance of irradiated Mg-alloy have been explored using Vickers Micro-hardness tester and Potentio-dynamic polarization technique, respectively. It was investigated that as compared with un-irradiated target, the hardness as well as corrosion resistance of the laser-irradiated target has been increased significantly in all environments. Plasma parameters, mechanical, and electrical properties of laser-irradiated Mg-alloy have been correlated with induced surface modifications and are strongly influenced by environmental conditions.

The effect of laser-irradiance on the surface morphology and laser induced breakdown spectroscopy of zinc has been investigated by employing Nd:YAG laser (wavelength λ = 1064 nm, pulse duration t ~ 10 ns, and repetition rate = 10 Hz) under ambient environment of argon at a pressure of 20 Torr. For this purpose, zinc targets were exposed to various laser irradiances ranging from 13 GW/cm2 to 100 GW/cm2. Scanning electron microscope analysis has been performed to analyze the surface modification of irradiated zinc targets. Scanning electron microscope analysis revealed the formation of various kinds of structures such as ripples, cones, cavities, and wave like ridges at the center and peripheral regions of ablated zinc. In the central ablated region with increasing laser irradiance, the growth of distinct and well defined ripples is observed. Further increase in irradiance makes the appearance of these ripples diffusive and narrow. In order to correlate the plasma parameters with the surface modification, laser induced breakdown spectroscopy analysis has also been performed. The electron temperature and number density of zinc plasma have been evaluated at various laser irradiances. For both plasma parameters, an increasing trend up to a certain value of laser irradiance is observed which is due to enhanced energy deposition. Afterword a decreasing trend is achieved which is attributed to the shielding effect. With further increase in irradiance a saturation stage comes and almost no change in plasma parameters is observed. This saturation is explainable on the basis of the formation of a self-regulating regime near the target surface. A strong correlation between surface modification and plasma parameters is established.

This paper presents a simplified theoretical model for the study of emission from laser produced plasma to better understand the processes and the factors involved in the onset of saturation in plasma emission as well as in increasing emission due to plasma confinement. This model considers that plasma emission is directly proportional to the square of plasma density, its volume, and the fraction of laser pulse absorbed through inverse Bremsstrahlung in the pre-formed plasma plume produced by the initial part of the laser. This shows that plasma density and temperature (that means the electron-ion collision frequency νei) decide the threshold for saturation in emission, which occurs for νei ≥ 1013 s−1, beyond which plasma shielding effects become dominant. Any decrease in plasma sound (expansion) velocity shows drastic enhancement in emission supporting the results obtained by magnetic as well as spatial confinement of laser produced plasma. The temporal evolution of plasma emission in the absence and presence of plasma confinement along with the effect of laser pulse duration are also discussed in the light of this model.

Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy is a fast non-contact technique for the analysis of the elemental composition of any sample. Our focus is to advance this technique into a regime where we use pulse energies below 100 µJ. This regime is referred to as micro-laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy or µLIBS. At present we have concentrated on two application areas : (1) The imaging of latent fingerprints and (2) the extension to laser ablation followed by laser-induced fluorescence (LA-LIF) for very high sensitivity analysis of contaminants in water. Preliminary pulse emission scaling of Na in latent fingerprints has been investigated for ~130 fs, 266 nm pulses with energies below 15 µJ. The lowest energy for reliable single shot detection of Na is approximately 3.5 µJ. A 2D map of a fingerprint on a Si wafer has been successfully demonstrated using 5 µJ pulses. In LA-LIF the detection sensitivity of micro-laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (µLIBS) is improved by coupling it with a second resonant probe pulse. This technique was investigated for the detection of Pb at low concentrations when ablated by 266 nm, 170 µJ pulses. After a short delay the resulting plume was re-excited with a nanosecond laser pulse tuned to a specific transition of Pb. In the case of the resonant dual-pulse LIBS the limit of detection was found to be approximately 60 ppb for Pb in water for 1000 shots. It is expected that this result could be implemented with fiber or microchip lasers with multi-kHz repetition rates and fiber Bragg grating tuning elements. The results are promising for the development of portable µLIBS water monitoring systems and portable fingerprint scanners.

The laser-induced plasma obtained from the liquid target and expanding across a steady magnetic field has been studied using atomic emission spectroscopy. The line emission from the plasma was enhanced (>1.5 times) in the presence of a magnetic field, whereas background emission decreases. Enhancement in line intensity was found to be mainly a function of plasma beta (β). An increased rate of three-body recombination in plasma particles due to the cooling of the plasma during its expansion and an increase in effective plasma density as a result of its confinement seems to be the reason behind this enhancement.