Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-b95js Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-14T11:21:57.478Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

22 - Social Cognitive Development

The Intergroup Context

from Subpart II.2 - Childhood and Adolescence: The Development of Human Thinking

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 February 2022

By
Lisa Chalik ,
Antonia Misch  and
Yarrow Dunham
Edited by
Olivier Houdé  and
Grégoire Borst
Olivier Houdé
Affiliation:
Université de Paris V
Grégoire Borst
Affiliation:
Université de Paris V
Get access

Summary

Throughout human history and across all human cultures, civilizations have organized themselves into social collectives, to the extent that it seems fair to say that social groups are the natural ecology of our species. In many ways, these groups play the same role as do categories in other domains; after all, the world is an incredibly complex place, and dividing it into categories is a powerful way to simplify this complexity and maximize efficiency in learning. In the social world, this way of working through complexity is especially important, given the extreme range of variability that exists across human individuals and communities. Children must navigate a world full of people with a range of properties that appear to have little in common with one another, posing a particularly difficult learnability problem. Social categorization allows children to work through this complexity by selecting features that denote meaningful differences between people (see Chapter 13). As a result, social categories become a fundamental lens through which we see the world.

Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Cognitive Development , pp. 481 - 499
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aboud, F. E. (1988). Children and Prejudice. New York: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Abrams, D., & Rutland, A. (2008). The development of subjective group dynamics. In Levy, S. R., & Killen, M. (eds.), Intergroup Attitudes and Relations in Childhood through Adulthood: Studies in Crime and Public Policy (pp. 47–65). Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abrams, D., Rutland, A., & Cameron, L. (2003). The development of subjective group dynamics: Children’s judgments of normative and deviant in-group and out-group individuals. Child Development, 74, 1840–1856.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abrams, D., Rutland, A., Pelletier, J., & Ferrell, J. M. (2009). Children’s group nous: Understanding and applying peer exclusion within and between groups. Child Development, 80, 224–243.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allport, G. (1954). The Nature of Prejudice. Cambridge: Addison Wesley.Google Scholar
Astuti, R., Solomon, G. E., & Carey, S. (2004). Constraints on conceptual development: A case study of the acquisition of folkbiological and folksociological knowledge in Madagascar. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 69, 1–135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Atran, S. (1990). Cognitive Foundations of Natural History. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bar-Haim, Y., Ziv, T., Lamy, D., & Hodes, R. M. (2006). Nature and nurture in own-race face processing. Psychological Science, 17, 159–163.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baron, A. S., & Banaji, M. R. (2006). The development of implicit attitudes evidence of race evaluations from ages 6 and 10 and adulthood. Psychological Science, 17, 53–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baron, A. S., & Dunham, Y. (2015). Representing “us” and “them”: Building blocks of intergroup cognition. Journal of Cognition and Development, 16, 780–801.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrett, M. (2007). Children’s Knowledge, Beliefs and Feelings about Nations and National Groups. Hove: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Batson, C. D., Polycarpou, M. P., Harmon-Jones, E., Imhoff, H. J., Mitchener, E. C., Bednar, L. L., Klein, T. R., & Highberger, L. (1997). Empathy and attitudes: Can feeling for a member of a stigmatized group improve feelings toward the group? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 105–118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. F. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497–529.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bennett, M., Lyons, E., Sani, F., & Barrett, M. (1998). Children’s subjective identification with the group and in-group favoritism. Developmental Psychology, 34, 902–909.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bennett, M., & Sani, F. (2008a). Children’s subjective identification with social groups: A self-stereotyping approach. Developmental Science, 11, 69–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bennett, M., & Sani, F. (2008b). The effect of comparative context upon stereotype content: Children’s judgments of ingroup behavior. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 49, 141–146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benozio, A., & Diesendruck, G. (2015). From effort to value: Preschool children’s alternative to effort justification. Psychological Science, 26, 1423–1429.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berndt, T. J., & Heller, K. A. (1986). Gender stereotypes and social inferences: A developmental study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 889–898.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bian, L., Leslie, S. J., & Cimpian, A. (2017). Gender stereotypes about intellectual ability emerge early and influence children’s interests. Science, 355, 389–391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bian, L., Sloane, S., & Baillargeon, R. (2018). Infants expect ingroup support to override fairness when resources are limited. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 115, 2705–2710.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Biernat, M. (1991). Gender stereotypes and the relationship between masculinity and femininity: A developmental analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 351–365.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bigler, R. S., & Liben, L. S. (1993). A cognitive-developmental approach to racial stereotyping and reconstructive memory in Euro-American children. Child Development, 64, 1507–1518.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bigler, R. S., & Liben, L. S. (2006). A developmental intergroup theory of social stereotypes and prejudice. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 34, 39–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Binder, J., Zagefka, H., Brown, R., Funke, F., Kessler, T., Mummendey, A., Maquil, A., Demoulin, S., & Leyens, J. P. (2009). Does contact reduce prejudice or does prejudice reduce contact? A longitudinal test of the contact hypothesis among majority and minority groups in three European countries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 843–856.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Birnbaum, D., Deeb, I., Segall, G., Ben-Eliyahu, A., & Diesendruck, G. (2010). The development of social essentialism: The case of Israeli children’s inferences about Jews and Arabs. Child Development, 81, 757–777.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boyd, R., & Richerson, P. J. (2009). Culture and the evolution of human cooperation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364, 3281–3288.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, D. E. (2004). Human universals, human nature & human culture. Daedalus, 133, 47–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, L. P., & Walton, G. M. (2013). The opportunity to collaborate increases preschoolers’ motivation for challenging tasks. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 116, 953–961.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buttelmann, D., & Bohm, R. (2014). The ontogeny of the motivation that underlies in-group bias. Psychological Science, 25, 921–927.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buttelmann, D., Zmyj, N., Daum, M., & Carpenter, M. (2013). Selective imitation of in-group over out-group members in 14-month-old infants. Child Development, 64, 422–428.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cameron, L., & Rutland, A. (2006). Extended contact through story reading in school: Reducing children’s prejudice toward the disabled. Journal of Social Issues, 62, 469–488.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cameron, L., Rutland, A., & Brown, R. (2007). Promoting children’s positive intergroup attitudes towards stigmatized groups: Extended contact and multiple classification skills training. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31, 454–466.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cameron, L., Rutland, A., Brown, R., & Douch, R. (2006). Changing children’s intergroup attitudes toward refugees: Testing different models of extended contact. Child Development, 77, 1208–1219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Castelli, L., De Amicis, L., & Sherman, S.J. (2007). The loyal member effect: On the preference for ingroup members who engage in exclusive relations with the ingroup. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1347–1359.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chalik, L., Leslie, S. J., & Rhodes, M. (2017). Cultural context shapes essentialist beliefs about religion. Developmental Psychology, 53, 1178–1187.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chalik, L., & Rhodes, M. (2014). Preschoolers use social allegiances to predict behavior. Journal of Cognition and Development, 15, 136–160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chalik, L., & Rhodes, M. (2018). Learning about social category-based obligations. Cognitive Development, 48, 117–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chalik, L., Rivera, C., & Rhodes, M. (2014). Children’s use of categories and mental states to predict social behavior. Developmental Psychology, 50, 2360–2367.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, E. E., Corriveau, K. H., & Harris, P. L. (2013). Children trust a consensus composed of outgroup members - but do not retain that trust. Child Development, 84, 269–282.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corenblum, B. (2003). What children remember about ingroup and outgroup peers: Effects of stereotypes on children’s processing of information about group members. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 86, 32–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corriveau, K. H., & Harris, P. L. (2010). Preschoolers (sometimes) defer to the majority in making simple perceptual judgments. Developmental Psychology, 46, 437–445.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corriveau, K. H., Kinzler, K. D., & Harris, P. L. (2013). Accuracy trumps accent in children’s endorsement of object labels. Developmental Psychology, 49, 470–479.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cvencek, D., Meltzoff, A. N., & Greenwald, A. G. (2011). Math-gender stereotypes in elementary school children. Child Development, 82, 766–779.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Degner, J., & Wentura, D. (2010). Automatic prejudice in childhood and early adolescence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98, 356.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeJesus, J. M., Rhodes, M., & Kinzler, K. D. (2014). Evaluations versus expectations: Children’s divergent beliefs about resource distribution. Cognitive Science, 38, 178–193.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
del Río, M. F., & Strasser, K. (2011). Chilean children’s essentialist reasoning about poverty. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 29, 722–743.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diesendruck, G., & Haber, L. (2009). God’s categories: The effect of religiosity on children’s teleological and essentialist beliefs about categories. Cognition, 110, 100–114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diesendruck, G., & HaLevi, H. (2006). The role of language, appearance, and culture in children’s social category-based induction. Child Development, 77, 539–553.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunham, Y. (2018). Mere membership. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 22, 780–793.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunham, Y., Baron, A. S., & Banaji, M. R. (2006). From American city to Japanese village: A cross-cultural investigation of implicit race attitudes. Child Development, 77, 1268–1281CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunham, Y., Baron, A. S., & Banaji, M. R. (2007). Children and social groups: A developmental analysis of implicit consistency in Hispanic Americans. Self and Identity, 6, 238–255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunham, Y., Baron, A. S., & Banaji, M. R. (2008). The development of implicit intergroup cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12, 248–253.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunham, Y., Baron, A. S., & Banaji, M. R. (2015). The development of implicit gender attitudes. Developmental Science, 18, 469–483.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunham, Y., Baron, A. S., & Carey, S. (2011). Consequences of “minimal” group affiliations in children. Child Development, 82, 793–811.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunham, Y., & Degner, J. (2013). From categories to exemplars (and back again). In Banaji, M. R., & Gelman, S. A. (eds.), Navigating the Social World: What Infants, Children, and Other Species Can Teach Us (pp. 275–280). New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunham, Y., & Emory, J. (2014). Of affect and ambiguity: The emergence of preference for arbitrary ingroups. Journal of Social Issues, 70, 81–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunham, Y., Newheiser, A. K., Hoosain, L., Merrill, A., & Olson, K. R. (2014a). From a different vantage: Intergroup attitudes among children from low- and intermediate-status racial groups. Social Cognition, 32, 1–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunham, Y., Srinivasan, M., Dorsch, R., & Barner, D. (2014b). Religion insulates ingroup evaluations: The development of intergroup attitudes in India. Developmental Science, 17, 311–319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Engelmann, J. M., Herrmann, E., Rapp, D. J., & Tomasello, M. (2016). Young children (sometimes) do the right thing even when their peers do not. Cognitive Development, 39, 86–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Engelmann, J. M., Over, H., Herrmann, E., & Tomasello, M. (2013). Young children care more about their reputation with ingroup members and potential reciprocators. Developmental Science, 16, 952–958.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fehr, E., Bernhard, H., & Rockenbach, B. (2008). Egalitarianism in young children. Nature, 454, 1079–1083.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Finlay, K. A., & Stephan, W. G. (2000). Improving intergroup relations: The effects of empathy on racial attitudes. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30, 1720–1737.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaias, L. M., Gal, D., Abry, T., Granger, K. L., & Taylor, M. (2018). Diversity exposure in preschool: Longitudinal implications for cross-race friendships and racial bias. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 59, 5–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gelman, S. A. (2003). The Essential Child: Origins of Essentialism in Everyday Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gelman, S., Collman, P., & Maccoby, E. (1986). Inferring properties from categories versus inferring categories from properties: The case of gender. Child Development, 57, 396–404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gopnik, A., & Wellman, H. M. (2012). Reconstructing constructivism: Causal models, Bayesian learning mechanisms, and the theory theory. Psychological Bulletin, 138, 1085–1108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Griffiths, J., & Nesdale, D. (2006). Ingroup and outgroup attitudes of ethnic majority and minority children. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 30, 735–749.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halim, M. L. D., Ruble, D. N., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Shrout, P. E., & Amodio, D. M. (2017). Gender attitudes in early childhood: Behavioral Consequences and cognitive antecedents. Child Development, 88, 882–899.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haslam, N., Rothschild, L., & Ernst, D. (2000). Essentialist beliefs about social categories. British Journal of Social Psychology, 39, 113–127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haun, D. B., & Tomasello, M. (2011). Conformity to peer pressure in preschool children. Child Development, 82, 1759–1767.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heiphetz, L., Spelke, E. S., & Banaji, M. R. (2013). Patterns of implicit and explicit attitudes in children and adults: Tests in the domain of religion. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 142, 864–879.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hetherington, C., Hendrickson, C., & Koenig, M. (2014). Reducing an in-group bias in preschool children: The impact of moral behavior. Developmental Science, 17, 1042–1049.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hilliard, L. J., & Liben, L. S. (2010). Differing levels of gender salience in preschool classrooms: Effects on children’s gender attitudes and intergroup bias. Child Development, 81, 1787–1798.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hirschfeld, L. A. (1996). Race in the Making. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Howard, L. H., Henderson, A. M., Carrazza, C., & Woodward, A. L. (2015). Infants’ and young children’s imitation of linguistic in-group and out-group informants. Child Development, 86, 259–275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
James, J. D. (2001). The role of cognitive development and socialization in the initial development of team loyalty. Leisure Sciences, 23, 233–261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jin, K., & Baillargeon, R. (2017). Infants possess an abstract expectation of ingroup support. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 114, 8199–8204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jordan, J. J., McAuliffe, K., & Warneken, F. (2014). Development of ingroup favoritism in children’s third-party punishment of selfishness. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 111, 12710–12715.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kalish, C. W., & Lawson, C. A. (2008). Development of social category representations: Early appreciation of roles and deontic relations. Child Development, 79, 577–593.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keller, J. (2005). In genes we trust: The biological component of psychological essentialism and its relationship to mechanisms of motivated social cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 686–702.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelly, D. J., Quinn, P. C., Slater, A. M., Lee, K., Gibson, A., Smith, M., Ge, L., & Pascalis, O. (2005). Three-month-olds but not newborns prefer own-race faces. Developmental Science, 8, F31–F36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kinzler, K. D., & Dautel, J. (2012). Children’s essentialist reasoning about language and race. Developmental Science, 15, 131–138.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kinzler, K. D., Dupoux, E., & Spelke, E. S. (2007). The native language of social cognition. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 104, 12577–12580.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kinzler, K. D., Dupoux, E., & Spelke, E. S. (2012). “Native” objects and collaborators: Infants’ object choices and acts of giving reflect favor for native over foreign speakers. Journal of Cognition and Development, 13, 67–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kinzler, K. D., Shutts, K., DeJesus, J., & Spelke, E. S. (2009). Accent trumps race in guiding children’s social preferences. Social Cognition, 27, 623–634.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kinzler, K. D., & Spelke, E. S. (2011). Do infants show social preferences for people differing in race? Cognition, 119, 1–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, K., Quinn, P. C., & Pascalis, O. (2017). Face race processing and racial bias in early development: A perceptual-social linkage. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26, 256–262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liberman, Z., Kinzler, K. D., & Woodward, A. L. (2014). Friends or foes: Infants use shared evaluations to infer others’ social relationships. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143, 966–971.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liberman, Z., Woodward, A. L., & Kinzler, K. D. (2017). Preverbal infants infer third-party social relationships based on language. Cognitive Science, 41, 622–634.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mahajan, N., & Wynn, K. (2012). Origins of “us” versus “them”: Prelinguistic infants prefer similar others. Cognition, 124, 227–233.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mahalingam, R. (2003). Essentialism, culture, and power: Representations of social class. Journal of Social Issues, 59, 733–749.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marques, J. M., Yzerbyt, V. Y., & Leyens, J. (1988). “The black sheep effect”: Extremity of judgments toward ingroup members as a function of group identification. European Journal of Social Psychology, 18, 1–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Master, A., Cheryan, S., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2017). Social group membership increases STEM engagement among preschoolers. Developmental Psychology, 53, 201–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Master, A. & Walton, G. M. (2012). Minimal groups increase young children’s motivation and learning on group-relevant tasks. Child Development, 84, 737–751.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McAuliffe, K., & Dunham, Y. (2017). Fairness overrides group bias in children’s second-party punishment. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 146, 485–494.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGlothlin, H., & Killen, M. (2010). How social experience is related to children’s intergroup attitudes. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 625–634.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLoughlin, N., & Over, H. (2017). The developmental origins of dehumanization. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 54, 153–178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLoughlin, N., Tipper, S. P., & Over, H. (2018). Young children perceive less humanness in outgroup faces. Developmental Science, 21, e12539.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Medin, D. L., & Ortony, A. (1989). Psychological essentialism. In Vosnaidou, S., & Ortony, A. (eds.), Similarity and Analogical Reasoning (pp. 179–196). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Misch, A., & Dunham, Y. (2021). (Peer) group influence on children's prosocial and antisocial behavior. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 201, 104994.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Misch, A., Over, H., & Carpenter, M. (2014). Stick with your group: Young children’s attitudes about group loyalty. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 126, 19–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Misch, A., Over, H., & Carpenter, M. (2016). I won’t tell: Young children show loyalty to their group by keeping group secrets. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 142, 96–106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Misch, A., Over, H., & Carpenter, M. (2018). The whistleblower’s dilemma in young children: When loyalty trumps other moral concerns. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muzzatti, B., & Agnoli, F. (2007). Gender and mathematics: Attitudes and stereotype threat susceptibility in Italian children. Developmental Psychology, 43, 747–759.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nesdale, D., & Flesser, D. (2001). Social identity and the development of children’s group attitudes. Child Development, 72, 506–517CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newheiser, A. K., & Olson, K. R. (2012). White and black American children’s implicit intergroup bias. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 264–270.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Noyes, A., & Dunham, Y. (2017). Mutual intentions as a causal framework for social groups. Cognition, 162, 133–142.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olson, K. R., & Dunham, Y. (2010). The development of implicit social cognition. In Gawronski, B., & Payne, B. K. (eds.), Handbook of Implicit Social Cognition: Measurement, Theory, and Applications (pp. 241–254). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Oostenbroek, J., & Over, H. (2015). Young children contrast their behavior to that of out-group members. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 139, 234–241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Over, H., & Carpenter, M. (2009). Eighteen-month-old infants show increased helping following priming with affiliation. Psychological Science, 20, 1189–1193.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Over, H., Eggleston, A., Bell, J., & Dunham, Y. (2017). Young children seek out biased information about social groups. Developmental Science, 21, 1–12.Google ScholarPubMed
Over, H., Vaish, A., & Tomasello, M. (2016). Do young children accept responsibility for the negative actions of ingroup members? Cognitive Development, 40, 24–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2006). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 751–783.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Powell, L. J., & Spelke, E. S. (2013). Preverbal infants expect members of social groups to act alike. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 110, E3965–E3972.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prentice, D. A., & Miller, D. T. (2007). Psychological essentialism of human categories. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 202–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Qian, M. K., Quinn, P. C., Heyman, G. D., Pascalis, O., Fu, G., & Lee, K. (2017). Perceptual individuation training (but not mere exposure) reduces implicit racial bias in preschool children. Developmental Psychology, 53, 845–859.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quinn, P. C., Yahr, J., Kuhn, A., Slater, A. M., & Pascalis, O. (2002). Representation of the gender of human faces by infants: A preference for female. Perception, 31, 1109–1121.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raabe, T., & Beelmann, A. (2011). Development of ethnic, racial, and national prejudice in childhood and adolescence: A multinational meta-analysis of age differences. Child Development, 82, 1715–1737.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Renno, M. P., & Shutts, K. (2015). Children’s social category-based giving and its correlates: Expectations and preferences. Developmental Psychology, 51, 533–543.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rhodes, M. (2012). Naïve theories of social groups. Child Development, 83, 1900–1916.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rhodes, M., & Chalik, L. (2013). Social categories as markers of intrinsic interpersonal obligations. Psychological Science, 24, 999–1006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rhodes, M., & Gelman, S. A. (2009). A developmental examination of the conceptual structure of animal, artifact, and human social categories across two cultural contexts. Cognitive Psychology, 59, 244–274.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rhodes, M., Leslie, S. J., Saunders, K., Dunham, Y., & Cimpian, A. (2017). How does social essentialism affect the development of inter-group relations? Developmental Science, 21, 1–15.Google ScholarPubMed
Rhodes, M., Leslie, S. J., & Tworek, C. M. (2012). Cultural transmission of social essentialism. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 109, 13526–13531.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rotenberg, K. J., & Cerda, C. (1994). Racially based trust expectancies of Native American and Caucasian children. Journal of Social Psychology, 134, 621–631.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rothbart, M., & Taylor, M. (1992). Category labels and social reality: Do we view social categories as natural kinds? In Semin, G. R., & Fiedler, K. (eds.), Language, Interaction and Social Cognition (pp. 11–36). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.Google Scholar
Rutland, A., Cameron, L., Bennett, L., & Ferrell, J. (2005a). Interracial contact and racial constancy: A multi-site study of racial intergroup bias in 3–5 year old Anglo-British children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 26, 699–713.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutland, A., Cameron, L., Milne, A., & McGeorge, P. (2005b). Social norms and self‐presentation: Children's implicit and explicit intergroup attitudes. Child Development, 76, 451–466.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutland, A., & Killen, M. (2015). A developmental science approach to reducing prejudice and social exclusion: Intergroup processes, social-cognitive development, and moral reasoning: A developmental science approach to reducing prejudice and social exclusion. Social Issues and Policy Review, 9, 121–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutland, A., Killen, M., & Abrams, D. (2010). A new social-cognitive developmental perspective on prejudice: The interplay between morality and group identity. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 279–291.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salomon, E., & Cimpian, A. (2014). The inherence heuristic as a source of essentialist thought. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40, 1297–1315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sani, F., & Bennett, M. (2009). Children’s inclusion of the group in the self: Evidence from a self-ingroup confusion paradigm. Developmental Psychology, 45, 503–510.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, M. F., Rakoczy, H., & Tomasello, M. (2012). Young children enforce social norms selectively depending on the violator’s group affiliation. Cognition, 124, 325–333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schug, M. G., Shusterman, A., Barth, H., & Palatano, A. L. (2013). Minimal-group membership influences children’s responses to novel experience with group members. Developmental Science, 16, 47–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shutts, K. (2015). Young children’s preferences: Gender, race, and social status. Child Development Perspectives, 9, 262–266.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shutts, K., Banaji, M. R., & Spelke, E. S. (2010). Social categories guide young children’s preferences for novel objects. Developmental Science, 13, 599–610.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sierksma, J., Thijs, J. T., & Verkuyten, M. (2015). In-group bias in children’s intention to help can be overpowered by inducing empathy. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 33, 45–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singarajah, A., Chanley, J., Gutierrez, Y., Cordon, Y., Nguyen, B., Burakowski, L., & Johnson, S. P. (2017). Infant attention to same- and other-race faces. Cognition, 159, 76–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Song, R., Over, H., & Carpenter, M. (2015). Children draw more affiliative pictures following priming with third-party ostracism. Developmental Psychology, 51, 831–840.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sousa, P., Atran, S., & Medin, D. (2002). Essentialism and folkbiology: Evidence from Brazil. Journal of Cognition and Culture, 2, 195–223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In Austin, W. G., & Worchel, S. (eds.), The Social Psychology of Inter-group Relations (pp. 33–47). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.Google Scholar
Taylor, M. G. (1996). The development of children’s beliefs about social and biological aspects of gender differences, Child Development, 67, 1555–1571.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, M. G., Rhodes, M., & Gelman, S. (2009). Boys will be boys; cows will be cows: Children’s essentialist reasoning about gender categories and animal species. Child Development, 80, 461–481.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watson-Jones, R. E., Whitehouse, H., & Legare, C. H. (2016). In-group ostracism increases high-fidelity imitation in early childhood. Psychological Science, 27, 34–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waxman, S. R. (2010). Names will never hurt me? Naming and the development of racial and gender categories in preschool-aged children. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 593–610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waxman, S. R., & Grace, A. D. (2012). Developing gender- and race-based categories in infants: Evidence from 7- and 11-month-olds. In Hayes, G., & Bryant, M. (eds.), Psychology of Culture (pp. 159–175). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers.Google Scholar
Wellman, H. M., & Gelman, S. A. (1992). Cognitive development: Foundational theories of core domains. Annual Review of Psychology, 43, 337–375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, M. J., & Eberhardt, J. L. (2008). Biological conceptions of race and the motivation to cross racial boundaries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 1033–1047.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilks, M., & Nielsen, M. (2018). Children disassociate from antisocial in-group members. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 165, 37–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Witt, S. D. (1997). Parental influence on children’s socialization to gender roles. Adolescence, 32, 253–259.Google ScholarPubMed
Wright, S. C., Aron, A., McLaughlin-Volpe, T., & Ropp, S. A. (1997). The extended contact effect: Knowledge of cross-group friendships and prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 73–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yang, F., Choi, Y., Misch, A., Yang, X., & Dunham, Y. (2018). In defense of the commons: Young children negatively evaluate and sanction free-riders. Psychological Science, 29, 1598–1611.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×