Introduction

Summary

The aim of every political constitution is, or ought to be, first to obtain for rulers men who possess most wisdom to discern, and most virtue to pursue, the common good of the society; and in the next place, to take the most effectual precautions for keeping them virtuous whilst they continue to hold their public trust.

James Madison, Federalist no. 57

In framing a government to be administered by men over men, the great difficulty lies in this: you must first enable the government to control the governed; and in the next place oblige it to control itself.

James Madison, Federalist no. 51

The Problem of Political Representation

Democracy is a form of rule. Even in direct democracy, decisions of a majority are binding on everyone, including the minority that finds them against their opinions or interests. In a representative democracy – our form of government – these decisions are made by elected representatives and implemented by appointed officials to whom the representatives delegate some of the tasks of governing. The representatives decide what citizens must and cannot do, and they coerce citizens to comply with their decisions. They decide how long children must go to school, how much individuals should pay in taxes, with which countries men must go to war, what agreements private parties must adhere to, as well as what citizens can know about the actions of governments. And they enforce such rules, even against the wishes of the individuals concerned. In this sense, they rule.