Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T15:17:23.114Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

8 - Literacy and Linguistic Diversity in Multilingual India

from Part I - Regional Variations

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 November 2023

By
Pooja R. Nakamura  and
Chinmaya U. Holla
Edited by
Ludo Verhoeven ,
Sonali Nag ,
Charles Perfetti  and
Kenneth Pugh
Ludo Verhoeven
Affiliation:
Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen
Sonali Nag
Affiliation:
University of Oxford
Charles Perfetti
Affiliation:
University of Pittsburgh
Kenneth Pugh
Affiliation:
Yale University, Connecticut
Get access

Summary

This chapter focuses on literacy and linguistic diversity in India as the second most populous nation in the world. India is home to different types of writing systems and linguistic situations; however, literacy acquisition in the region is often defined using alphasyllabic akshara orthographies and multilingualism. Both these characteristics have significant implications for the theory, practice, and policy of literacy acquisition in India. In India, only 44 percent of students in government schools can read Grade-2-level texts in Grade 5 fluently. Within India, there is, however, wide variation, with literacy rates being significantly higher in private schools and in urban areas. We begin with a brief description of the historical and contemporary state of multilingual education policy and practice in India. In addition, the psycholinguistic underpinnings of learning to read in akshara orthographies and of biliteracy acquisition with at least one akshara orthography will be uncovered. Finally, future directions related to literacy development research and practice among diverse populations in India are discussed.

Keywords

literacyvariationlinguistic diversityIndiaaksharamultilingualism
Type
Chapter
Information
Global Variation in Literacy Development , pp. 155 - 173
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abu-Rabia, S. (1997). Reading in Arabic orthography: The effect of vowels and context on reading accuracy of poor and skilled native Arabic readers. Reading and Writing, 9, 65–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abu-Rabia, S., & Siegel, L. S. (2002). Reading, syntactic, orthographic, and working memory skills of bilingual Arabic-English speaking Canadian children. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 31, 661–678.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Agrawal, T. (2014). Educational inequality in rural and urban India. International Journal of Educational Development, 34, 11–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ASER Centre. (2018). Annual Status of Education Report (Rural) 2018. New Delhi: ASER. http://img.asercentre.org/docs/ASER%202018/Release%20Material/aserreport2018.pdf.Google Scholar
Asfaha, Y. M., Beckman, D., Kurvers, J., & Kroon, S. (2009). L2 reading in multilingual Eritrea: The influences of L1 reading and English proficiency. Journal of Research in Reading, 32, 351–365.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asfaha, Y. M., Kurvers, J., & Kroon, S. (2009). Grain size in script and teaching: Literacy acquisition in Ge’ez and Latin. Applied Psycholinguistics, 30, 709–724.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
August, D., & Shanahan, T. (eds.). (2006). Developing Literacy in Second-Language Learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.Google Scholar
Azam, M., Chin, A., & Prakash, N. (2013). The returns to English-language skills in India. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 61, 335–367.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ball, J. (2011). Enhancing Learning of Children from Diverse Language Backgrounds: Mother Tongue-Based Bilingual or Multilingual Education in the Early Years. Paris: UNESCO.Google Scholar
Bender, P., Dutcher, N., Klaus, D., Shore, J., & Tesar, C. (2005). In Their Own Language: Education for All. Education Notes 38906.Washington, DC: World Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/374241468763515925/In-their-own-language-education-for-all.Google Scholar
Benson, C. (2005). The importance of mother tongue-based schooling for educational quality. Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2005, The Quality Imperative. www.unesco.org/en/efareport/reports/2005-quality/.Google Scholar
Bhatia, T., & Ritchie, W. C. (2004). Bilingualism in South Asia. In Bhatia, T. K. & Ritchie, W. (eds.), The Handbook of Bilingualism (pp. 780–807). Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., McBride-Chang, C., & Luk, G. (2005). Bilingualism, language proficiency, and learning to read in two writing systems. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 580.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19, 5–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chakraborty, T., & Bakshi, S. K. (2016). English language premium: Evidence from a policy experiment in India. Economics of Education Review, 50, 1–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chang, L. Y., Chen, Y. C., & Perfetti, C. A. (2018). GraphCom: A multidimensional measure of graphic complexity applied to 131 written languages. Behavior Research Methods, 50, 427–449.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cho, J. R., & McBride-Chang, C. (2005). Levels of phonological awareness in Korean and English: A 1-year longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 580–590.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chung, S. C., Chen, X., & Geva, E. (2019). Deconstructing and reconstructing cross-language transfer in bilingual reading development: An interactive framework. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 50, 149–161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummins, J. (1979). Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children. Review of Educational Research, 49, 222–251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummins, J. (1991). Interdependence of first-and second-language proficiency in bilingual children. In Bialystok, E. (ed.), Language Processing in Bilingual Children (pp. 70–89). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Da Fontoura, H. A., & Siegel, L. S. (1995). Reading, syntactic, and working memory skills of bilingual Portuguese-English Canadian children. Reading and Writing, 7, 139–153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dasgupta, K. (2019, June 3). The three-language formula is a bad idea. Hindustan Times. www.hindustantimes.com/analysis/why-the-three-language-formula-is-a-bad-idea/story-xkmnLInWyJGq6Pale1RdhJ.html.Google Scholar
Dixon, P., Schagen, I., & Seedhouse, P. (2011). The impact of an intervention on children’s reading and spelling ability in low-income schools in India. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 22, 461–482.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durgunoğlu, A. Y., Nagy, W. E., & Hancin-Bhatt, B. J. (1993). Cross-language transfer of phonological awareness. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 453.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Education for All in India. (2011). State of literacy. (Online chapter.) www.educationforallinindia.com/chapter6-state-of-literacy-2011-census.pdf.Google Scholar
Gejji, A. (2019, September 7). Karnataka: Scrap English medium in govt schools, writers urge govt. The Times of India. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/karnataka-scrap-english-medium-in-govt-schools-writers-urge-govt/articleshow/71028126.cms.Google Scholar
Gelb, I. J. (1952). A Study of Writing: The Foundations of Grammatology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Geva, E., & Siegel, L. S. (2000). Orthographic and cognitive factors in the concurrent development of basic reading skills in two languages. Reading and Writing, 12, 1–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geva, E., Wade-Woolley, L., & Shany, M. (1997). Development of reading efficiency in first and second language. Scientific Studies of Reading, 1, 119–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodrich, J. M., Lonigan, C. J., & Farver, J. M. (2017). Do early literacy skills in children’s first language promote development of skills in their second language? An experimental evaluation of transfer. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105, 414–426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottardo, A., Yan, B., Siegel, L. S., & Wade-Woolley, L. (2001). Factors related to English reading performance in children with Chinese as a first language: More evidence of cross-language transfer of phonological processing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 530.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Government of India. (2011). Census of India. New Delhi: Ministry of Home Affairs.Google Scholar
Government of India. (2012). Draft National Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) Policy. https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/234067/4/13%20appendix.pdf.Google Scholar
Gupta, R. (2013). More than ABC: Instructional practices and children’s understanding of literacy through English. Contemporary Education Dialogue, 10, 37–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Indo-Asian News Service. (2019, September 11). English to be medium of instruction in Andhra government schools. India TV. www.indiatvnews.com/news/india/english-medium-of-instruction-andhra-government-schools-548970.Google Scholar
Inoue, T., Georgiou, G. K., Muroya, N., Maekawa, H., & Parrila, R. (2017). Cognitive predictors of literacy acquisition in syllabic Hiragana and morphographic Kanji. Reading and Writing, 30, 1335–1360.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jayasundara, N. S. (2014). The development of language education policy: An Indian perspective; a view from Tamil Nadu. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 4, 1–4.Google Scholar
Jhingran, D. (2005). Language Disadvantage: The Learning Challenge in Primary Education. New Delhi: APH Publishing.Google Scholar
Joshi, R. M., & McBride, C. (2019). Introduction: Handbook of literacy in akshara orthography. In Joshi, R. M. & McBride, C. (eds.), Handbook of Literacy in Akshara Orthography (pp. 3–9). Cham: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kandhadai, P., & Sproat, R. (2010). Impact of spatial ordering of graphemes in alphasyllabic scripts on phonemic awareness in Indic languages. Writing Systems Research, 2, 105–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katz, L., & Frost, R. (1992). The reading process is different for different orthographies: The orthographic depth hypothesis. In Frost, R. & Katz, L. (eds.), Orthography, phonology, morphology, and meaning (pp. 45–66). Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Kim, J., & Davis, C. (2004). Characteristics of poor readers of Korean Hangul: Auditory, visual and phonological processing. Reading and Writing, 17, 153–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, Y. S. (2009). Crosslinguistic influence on phonological awareness for Korean–English bilingual children. Reading and Writing, 22, 843.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, Y. S., & Petscher, Y. (2011). Relations of emergent literacy skill development with conventional literacy skill development in Korean. Reading and Writing, 24, 635–656.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koda, K. (2005). Insights into Second Language Reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koda, K. (2008). Impacts of prior literacy experience on second language learning to read. In Koda, K. & Zehler, A. M. (eds.), Learning to Read across Languages: Cross-Linguistic Relationships in First- and Second Language Literacy Development (pp. 68–96). New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koda, K. (2013). Development of second language reading skills: Cross-linguistic perspectives. In Gass, S. M., & Mackey, A. (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (pp. 303–318). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Kuo, L. J., Uchikoshi, Y., Kim, T. J., & Yang, X. (2016). Bilingualism and phonological awareness: Re-examining theories of cross-language transfer and structural sensitivity. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 46, 1–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kurrien, J. (2004, April 30). The English juggernaut: Regional medium schools in crisis. The Times of India, pp. 1–12.Google Scholar
Kurrien, J. (2005). Notes for the meeting of the National Focus Group on Teaching of English, and note on introduction of English at the primary stage. Unpublished manuscript. (New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training.)Google Scholar
Lam, K., Chen, X., Geva, E., Luo, Y. C., & Li, H. (2012). The role of morphological awareness in reading achievement among young Chinese-speaking English language learners: A longitudinal study. Reading and Writing, 25, 1847–1872.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Melby‐Lervåg, M., & Lervåg, A. (2011). Cross‐linguistic transfer of oral language, decoding, phonological awareness and reading comprehension: A meta‐analysis of the correlational evidence. Journal of Research in Reading, 34, 114–135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mohanty, A. (2006). Multilingualism of the unequals and predicaments of education in India: Mother tongue or other tongue? In Garcia, O., Skutnabb-Kangas, T., & Torres-Guzman, M. (eds.), Imagining Multilingual Schools: Languages in Education and Glocalization (pp. 262–283). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mohanty, A. K., Panda, M., & Pal, R. (2010). Language policy in education and classroom practices in India: Is the teacher a cog in the policy wheel? In Menken, K. & Garcia, O. (eds.), Negotiating Language Policies in Schools: Educators as Policymakers, (pp. 211–231). London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Nag, S. (2007). Early reading in Kannada: The pace of acquisition of orthographic knowledge and phonemic awareness. Journal of Research in Reading, 30, 7–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nag, S. (2014). Alphabetism and the science of reading: From the perspective of the akshara languages. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nag, S. (2017). Learning to read alphasyllabaries. In Cain, K., Compton, D. L., & Parrila, R. K. (eds.), Theories of Reading Development (pp. 75–98). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nag, S., & Perfetti, C. A. (2014). Reading and writing: Insights from the alphasyllabaries of South and Southeast Asia. Writing Systems Research, 6, 1–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nag, S., Ramkumar, S., Miranda, R. et al. (2014). Home and school learning environment: Field notes from eight urban, public-funded nursery and primary schools. Working paper. Bangalore: The Promise Foundation.Google Scholar
Nag, S., Snowling, M., Quinlan, P., & Hulme, C. (2014). Child and symbol factors in learning to read a visually complex writing system. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18, 309–324.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nag-Arulmani, S. (2000). Types and manifestations of learning difficulties in Indian classrooms. In paper presented at the First Orientation Programme for Schoolteachers, National Institute for Public Co-operation and Child Development (NIPCCD), Bangalore, India.Google Scholar
Nag-Arulmani, S. (2003). Reading difficulties in Indian languages. In Ghoulandris, N. (ed.), Dyslexia in Different Languages: Cross Linguistic Comparisons. (pp. 235–254). London: Whurr.Google Scholar
Nakamoto, J., Lindsey, K. A., & Manis, F. R. (2008). A cross-linguistic investigation of English language learners’ reading comprehension in English and Spanish. Scientific Studies of Reading, 12, 351–371.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nakamura, P. R., de Hoop, T., & Holla, C. U. (2019). Language and the learning crisis: evidence of transfer threshold mechanisms in multilingual reading in South India. The Journal of Development Studies, 55, 2287–2305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nakamura, P. R., Joshi, R. M., & Ji, X. R. (2018). Investigating the asymmetrical roles of syllabic and phonemic awareness in akshara processing. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 51, 499–506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nakamura, P. R., Koda, K., & Joshi, R. M. (2014). Biliteracy acquisition in Kannada and English: A developmental study. Writing Systems Research, 6, 132–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National Council of Educational Research & Training. (2005). National Curriculum Framework 2005. National Council of Educational Research and Training (India).Google Scholar
Nesan, M., Sadeghi, A., & Everatt, J. (2019). Literacy acquisition in the Malayalam orthography: Cognitive/linguistic influences within a multilingual context. In Joshi, R. M. & McBride, C. (eds.), Handbook of Literacy in Akshara Orthography (pp. 85–101). Cham: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pal, S., & Kingdon, G. G. (2010). Can private school growth foster universal literacy? Panel evidence from Indian districts. IZA Discussion Paper 5274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pelli, D. G., Burns, C. W., Farell, B., & Moore-Page, D. C. (2006). Feature detection and letter identification. Vision Research, 46, 4646–4674.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perfetti, C. A. (2003). The universal grammar of reading. Scientific Studies of Reading, 7, 3–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pinnock, H. (2009). Language and Education: The Missing Link, How the Language Used in Schools Threatens the Achievement of Education For All. London: Save the Children.Google Scholar
Press Trust of India. (2020, May 28). AP CM says firm in resolve to introduce English medium in primary schools. The Times of India. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/news/ap-cm-says-firm-in-resolve-to-introduce-english-medium-in-primary-schools/articleshow/76061600.cms.Google Scholar
Pretorius, E. J., & Mampuru, D. M. (2007). Playing football without a ball: language, reading and academic performance in a high‐poverty school. Journal of Research in Reading, 30, 38–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramanujan, K., & Weekes, B. S. (2019). What is an Akshara? In Joshi., R. M., & McBride, C. (eds.), Handbook of Literacy in Akshara Orthography. Cham: Springer.Google Scholar
Ramírez, G., Chen, X., & Pasquarella, A. (2013). Cross-linguistic transfer of morphological awareness in Spanish-speaking English language learners: The facilitating effect of cognate knowledge. Topics in Language Disorders, 33, 73–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rayner, K., Foorman, B. R., Perfetti, C. A., Pesetsky, D., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2001). How psychological science informs the teaching of reading. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 2, 31–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reddy, P. R. (2011). Biliteracy development in middle-school students from the slums of India (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA.)Google Scholar
Reddy, P. R., & Koda, K. (2013). Orthographic constraints on phonological awareness in biliteracy development. Writing Systems Research, 5, 110–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaefer, M., & Kotzé, J. (2019). Early reading skills related to Grade 1 English second language literacy in rural South African schools. South African Journal of Childhood Education, 9, 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwartz, M., Geva, E., Share, D. L., & Leikin, M. (2007). Learning to read in English as third language: The cross-linguistic transfer of phonological processing skills. Written Language & Literacy, 10, 25–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sénéchal, M., & LeFevre, J. A. (2002). Parental involvement in the development of children’s reading skill: A five‐year longitudinal study. Child Development, 73, 445–460.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seymour, P. H., Aro, M., Erskine, J. M. (2003). Foundation literacy acquisition in European orthographies. British Journal of Psychology, 94, 143–174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shankaran, S. (2019, June 3). Is the three-language formula really implementable now? The Times of India. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/cash-flow/is-the-three-language-formula-really-implementable-now/.Google Scholar
Share, D. L. (2014). Alphabetism in reading science. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 752. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00752.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Share, D. L., & Daniels, P. T. (2016). Aksharas, alphasyllabaries, abugidas, alphabets and orthographic depth: Reflections on Rimzhim, Katz and Fowler (2014). Writing Systems Research, 8, 17–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shastry, G. K. (2012). Human capital response to globalization education and information technology in India. Journal of Human Resources, 47, 287–330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shenoy, S., & Wagner, R. K. (2019). Language and literacy practices that influence bilingual and bi-Literate acquisition in L1 Kannada and L2 English in Bangalore, India. In Joshi, R. M. & McBride, C. (eds.), Handbook of Literacy in Akshara Orthography (pp. 373–388). Cham: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shenoy, S., Wagner, R. K., & Rao, N. M. (2020). Factors that influence reading acquisition in L2 English for students in Bangalore, India. Reading & Writing, 33, 1809–1838.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sircar, S., & Nag, S. (2013). Akshara–syllable mappings in Bengali: A language-specific skill for reading. In Winskel, S. & Padakannaya, P. (eds.), South and Southeast Asian Psycholinguistics (pp. 202–211). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snow, C. E., & Matthews, T. J. (2016). Reading and language in the early grades. The Future of Children, 26, 57–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tollefson, J. W., & Tsui, A. B. (2003). The centrality of medium-of-instruction policy in sociopolitical processes. In Tollefson, J. W. & Tsui, A. B. M. (eds.), Medium of Instruction Policies: Which Agenda? Whose Agenda? (pp. 1–18). London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trudell, B. (2005). Language choice, education and community identity. International Journal of Educational Development, 25, 237–251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tunmer, W. E., & Hoover, W. A. (2019). The cognitive foundations of learning to read: A framework for preventing and remediating reading difficulties. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 24, 75–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vaid, J., & Gupta, A. (2002). Exploring word recognition in a semi-alphabetic script: The case of Devanagari. Brain and Language, 81, 679–690.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vaish, V. (2008). Biliteracy and Globalization: English Language Education in India. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vasanta, D. (2004). Processing phonological information in a semi-syllabic script: Developmental data from Telugu. Reading and Writing, 17, 59–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Venkataramanan, K. (2019, June 8). What is the three-language formula? The Times of India. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/cash-flow/is-the-three-language-formula-really-implementable-now/.Google Scholar
Verhoeven, L., & Perfetti, C. (eds.). (2017). Learning to Read across Languages and Writing Systems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wade-Woolley, L., & Geva, E. (2000). Processing novel phonemic contrasts in the acquisition of L2 word reading. Scientific Studies of Reading, 4, 295–311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, M., Cheng, C., & Chen, S. W. (2006). Contribution of morphological awareness to Chinese-English biliteracy acquisition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 542.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, M., & Koda, K. (2007). Commonalities and differences in word identification skills among learners of English as a second language. Language Learning, 57, 201–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, M., Park, Y., & Lee, K. R. (2006). Korean-English biliteracy acquisition: Cross-language phonological and orthographic transfer. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 148–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, M., Perfetti, C. A., & Liu, Y. (2005). Chinese–English biliteracy acquisition: Cross-language and writing system transfer. Cognition, 97, 67–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wawire, B. A., & Kim, Y. S. G. (2018). Cross-language transfer of phonological awareness and letter knowledge: Causal evidence and nature of transfer. Scientific Studies of Reading, 22, 443–461.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wijayathilake, M. A. D. K., Parrila, R., Inoue, T., & Nag, S. (2019). Cognitive predictors of word reading in Sinhala. Reading and Writing, 32, 1881–1907.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winskel, H., & Iemwanthong, K. (2010). Reading and spelling acquisition in Thai children. Reading and Writing, 23, 1021–1053.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winskel, H., Padakannaya, P., & Pandey, A. (2013). Eye movements and reading in the alphasyllabic scripts of South and Southeast Asia. In Winskel, H. & Padakannaya, P. (eds.), South and South-East Asian Psycholinguistics (pp. 315–328). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
World Bank. (2019). Ending Learning Poverty: What Will It Take? Washington, DC. World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/32553.Google Scholar
Zhang, D. (2013). Linguistic distance effect on cross-linguistic transfer of morphological awareness. Applied Psycholinguistics, 34, 917–942.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, D., & Koda, K. (2014). Awareness of derivation and compounding in Chinese–English biliteracy acquisition. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 17, 55–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ziegler, J. C., & Goswami, U. (2005). Reading acquisition, developmental dyslexia, and skilled reading across languages: A psycholinguistic grain size theory. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 3–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×