Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-7b9c58cd5d-dlb68 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-03-13T10:51:52.435Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

16 - Case Study: Antidepressant Medications

from Part III - Case Studies

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 March 2025

Karen B. Schmaling
Affiliation:
Washington State University
Robert M. Kaplan
Affiliation:
Stanford University
Get access

Summary

Antidepressant medications are widely prescribed for depression and other uses. They are considered a first-line treatment for major depressive disorder. We examine the lack of support for the mechanistic idea that neurotransmitters affect and are affected by these medications. Few people experience significant benefit from their use when compared with the effects of placebos. We consider several ethical issues associated with antidepressants, including conflicts of interest among the committees recommending their use, and examine a study that suffered from spin and other issues of integrity. The chapter examines potential alternatives to antidepressant medications for those with depression.

Type
Chapter
Information
Rethinking Clinical Research
Methodology and Ethics
, pp. 317 - 338
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2025

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5-TR. 5th ed, text revision. ed. American Psychiatric Association Publishing; 2022:1 online resource.Google Scholar
Kessler, RC, Berglund, P, Demler, O, et al. The epidemiology of major depressive disorder: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). JAMA. 2003; 289(23):30953105. doi:10.1001/jama.289.23.3095.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Almohammed, OA, Alsalem, AA, Almangour, AA, Alotaibi, LH, Al Yami, MS, Lai, L. Antidepressants and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) for patients with depression: Analysis of the medical expenditure panel survey from the United States. PLoS One. 2022; 17(4):e0265928. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0265928.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patten, SB. Accumulation of major depressive episodes over time in a prospective study indicates that retrospectively assessed lifetime prevalence estimates are too low. BMC Psychiat. 2009; 9:19. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-9-19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, Q, He, H, Yang, J, Feng, X, Zhao, F, Lyu, J. Changes in the global burden of depression from 1990 to 2017: Findings from the Global Burden of Disease study. J Psychiatr Res. 2020; 126:134140. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2019.08.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Global Burden of Disease 2019 Diseases and Injuries Collaborators. Global burden of 369 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet. 2020; 396(10258):12041222. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30925-9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cuijpers, P, Vogelzangs, N, Twisk, J, Kleiboer, A, Li, J, Penninx, BW. Comprehensive meta-analysis of excess mortality in depression in the general community versus patients with specific illnesses. Am J Psychiatry. 2014; 171(4):453462. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13030325.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cuijpers, P, Vogelzangs, N, Twisk, J, Kleiboer, A, Li, J, Penninx, BW. Is excess mortality higher in depressed men than in depressed women? A meta-analytic comparison. J Affect Disord. 2014; 161:4754. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2014.03.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Machado, MO, Veronese, N, Sanches, M, et al. The association of depression and all-cause and cause-specific mortality: An umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. BMC Med. 2018; 16(1):112. doi:10.1186/s12916-018-1101-z.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siu, AL, Bibbins-Domingo, K, Grossman, DC, et al. Screening for depression in adults: US preventive services task force recommendation statement. JAMA. 2016; 315(4):380387. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.18392.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kroenke, K, Spitzer, RL, Williams, JB. The PHQ-9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure. J Gen Intern Med. 2001; 16(9):606613. doi:10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eaton, WW, Shao, H, Nestadt, G, Lee, HB, Bienvenu, OJ, Zandi, P. Population-based study of first onset and chronicity in major depressive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2008; 65(5):513520. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.65.5.513.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Solomon, DA, Keller, MB, Leon, AC, et al. Recovery from major depression. A 10-year prospective follow-up across multiple episodes. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1997; 54(11):10011006. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1997.01830230033005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kovacs, M, Obrosky, S, George, C. The course of major depressive disorder from childhood to young adulthood: Recovery and recurrence in a longitudinal observational study. J Affect Disord. 2016; 203:374381. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.05.042.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coryell, W, Akiskal, HS, Leon, AC, et al. The time course of nonchronic major depressive disorder. Uniformity across episodes and samples. National Institute of Mental Health Collaborative Program on the Psychobiology of Depression – Clinical Studies. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1994; 51(5):405410. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1994.03950050065007.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coryell, W, Solomon, D, Leon, A, et al. Does major depressive disorder change with age? Psychol Med. 2009; 39(10):16891695. doi:10.1017/S0033291709005364.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thase, ME. Long-term nature of depression. J Clin Psychiatry. 1999; 60(Suppl 14):39; discussion 31–35.Google ScholarPubMed
Judd, LL, Akiskal, HS, Paulus, MP. The role and clinical significance of subsyndromal depressive symptoms (SSD) in unipolar major depressive disorder. J Affect Disord. 1997; 45(1–2):517; discussion 17–18. doi:10.1016/s0165-0327(97)00055-4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
National Health Service. Medicines Used in Mental Health: England 2015/16 to 2020/21. Updated July 8, 2021. https://nhsbsa-opendata.s3.eu-west-2.amazonaws.com/mumh/mumh_annual_2020_21_v001.html.Google Scholar
Brody, DJ, Gu, Q. Antidepressant use among adults: United States, 2015–2018. NCHS Data Brief. 2020; (377):18.Google Scholar
Pratt, LA, Brody, DJ, Gu, Q. Antidepressant use among persons aged 12 and over: United States, 2011–2014. NCHS Data Brief. 2017; 283):18.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Health, United States, 2016 – Individual Charts and Tables: Spreadsheet, PDF, and PowerPoint files. Table 80. Selected prescription drug classes used in the past 30 days, by sex and age: United States, selected years 1988–1994 through 2011–2014. 2016. www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hus/2016/080.pdf.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey: 2019 National Summary Tables. Table 22. Twenty most frequently mentioned drugs at office visits, by therapeutic drug category: United States, 2019. 2019. www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/ahcd/namcs_summary/2019-namcs-web-tables-508.pdf.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. NHANES Response Rates and Population Totals. Accessed April 19, 2024, wwwn.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/responserates.aspx#population-totals.Google Scholar
Luo, Y, Kataoka, Y, Ostinelli, EG, Cipriani, A, Furukawa, TA. National prescription patterns of antidepressants in the treatment of adults with major depression in the US between 1996 and 2015: A population representative survey based analysis. Front Psychiatry. 2020; 11:35. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00035.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gorfinkel, LR, Hasin, D, Saxon, AJ, et al. Trends in prescriptions for non-opioid pain medications among U.S. adults with moderate or severe pain, 2014–2018. J Pain. 2022; 23(7):11871195. doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2022.01.006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wong, J, Motulsky, A, Abrahamowicz, M, Eguale, T, Buckeridge, DL, Tamblyn, R. Off-label indications for antidepressants in primary care: Descriptive study of prescriptions from an indication based electronic prescribing system. BMJ. 2017; 356:j603. doi:10.1136/bmj.j603.Google ScholarPubMed
Mojtabai, R, Olfson, M. Proportion of antidepressants prescribed without a psychiatric diagnosis is growing. Health Aff (Millwood). 2011; 30(8):14341442. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2010.1024.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Radley, DC, Finkelstein, SN, Stafford, RS. Off-label prescribing among office-based physicians. Arch Intern Med. 2006; 166(9):10211026. doi:10.1001/archinte.166.9.1021.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mercier, A, Auger-Aubin, I, Lebeau, JP, et al. Evidence of prescription of antidepressants for non-psychiatric conditions in primary care: An analysis of guidelines and systematic reviews. BMC Fam Pract. 2013; 14:55. doi:10.1186/1471-2296-14-55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lim, D, Jung, J. Racial-ethnic differences in off-label antidepressant use, by insurance type. Psychiatr Serv. 2017; 68(12):12711279. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201600445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheffler, ZM, Patel, P, Abdijadid, S. Antidepressants. StatPearls; 2022.Google Scholar
Food and Drug Administration. Suicidality in children and adolescents being treated with antidepressant medications. 2004. PMID:30844209.Google Scholar
Friedman, RA. Antidepressants’ black-box warning – 10 years later. N Engl J Med. 2014; 371(18):16661668. doi:10.1056/NEJMp1408480.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spielmans, GI, Spence-Sing, T, Parry, P. Duty to warn: Antidepressant black box suicidality warning is empirically justified. Front Psychiatry. 2020; 11:18. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00018.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scotton, WJ, Hill, LJ, Williams, AC, Barnes, NM. Serotonin syndrome: Pathophysiology, clinical features, management, and potential future directions. Int J Tryptophan Res. 2019; 12:1178646919873925. doi:10.1177/1178646919873925.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schatzberg, AF, Haddad, P, Kaplan, EM, et al. Serotonin reuptake inhibitor discontinuation syndrome: A hypothetical definition. Discontinuation consensus panel. J Clin Psychiatry. 1997; 58(Suppl 7):510.Google ScholarPubMed
Dragioti, E, Solmi, M, Favaro, A, et al. Association of antidepressant use with adverse health outcomes: A systematic umbrella review. JAMA Psychiatry. 2019; 76(12):12411255. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.2859.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marazziti, D, Mucci, F, Tripodi, B, et al. Emotional blunting, cognitive impairment, bone fractures, and bleeding as possible side effects of long-term use of SSRIs. Clin Neuropsychiatry. 2019; 16(2):7585.Google ScholarPubMed
Coupland, C, Dhiman, P, Morriss, R, Arthur, A, Barton, G, Hippisley-Cox, J. Antidepressant use and risk of adverse outcomes in older people: Population based cohort study. BMJ. 2011; 343:d4551. doi:10.1136/bmj.d4551.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coupland, C, Hill, T, Morriss, R, Moore, M, Arthur, A, Hippisley-Cox, J. Antidepressant use and risk of adverse outcomes in people aged 20–64 years: Cohort study using a primary care database. BMC Med. 2018; 16(1):36. doi:10.1186/s12916-018-1022-x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mojtabai, R, Olfson, M. National trends in long-term use of antidepressant medications: Results from the U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. J Clin Psychiatry. 2014; 75(2):169177. doi:10.4088/JCP.13m08443.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moncrieff, J, Cooper, RE, Stockmann, T, Amendola, S, Hengartner, MP, Horowitz, MA. The serotonin theory of depression: A systematic umbrella review of the evidence. Mol Psychiatry. 2022; doi:10.1038/s41380-022-01661-0.Google ScholarPubMed
Stone, MB, Yaseen, ZS, Miller, BJ, Richardville, K, Kalaria, SN, Kirsch, I. Response to acute monotherapy for major depressive disorder in randomized, placebo controlled trials submitted to the US Food and Drug Administration: Individual participant data analysis. BMJ. 2022; 378:e067606. doi:10.1136/bmj-2021-067606.Google Scholar
Turner, EH, Cipriani, A, Furukawa, TA, Salanti, G, de Vries, YA. Selective publication of antidepressant trials and its influence on apparent efficacy: Updated comparisons and meta-analyses of newer versus older trials. PLoS Med. 2022; 19(1):e1003886. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1003886.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamilton, M. A rating scale for depression. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1960; 23(1):5662. doi:10.1136/jnnp.23.1.56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Furukawa, TA, Cipriani, A, Atkinson, LZ, et al. Placebo response rates in antidepressant trials: A systematic review of published and unpublished double-blind randomised controlled studies. Lancet Psychiatry. 2016; 3(11):10591066. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30307-8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Vries, YA, Roest, AM, de Jonge, P, Cuijpers, P, Munafò, MR, Bastiaansen, JA. The cumulative effect of reporting and citation biases on the apparent efficacy of treatments: The case of depression. Psychol Med. 2018; 48(15):24532455. doi:10.1017/S0033291718001873.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kazdin, AE. Treatment as usual and routine care in research and clinical practice. Clin Psychol Rev. 2015; 42:168178. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.08.006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cuijpers, P, Miguel, C, Ciharova, M, et al. Psychological treatment of depression with other comorbid mental disorders: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Cogn Behav Ther. 2023:123. doi:10.1080/16506073.2023.2166578.Google ScholarPubMed
Westen, D, Morrison, K. A multidimensional meta-analysis of treatments for depression, panic, and generalized anxiety disorder: An empirical examination of the status of empirically supported therapies. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2001; 69(6):875899.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lorenzo-Luaces, L, Zimmerman, M, Cuijpers, P. Are studies of psychotherapies for depression more or less generalizable than studies of antidepressants? J Affect Disord. 2018; 234:813. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.02.066.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, RC, Birnbaum, HG, Shahly, V, et al. Age differences in the prevalence and co-morbidity of DSM-IV major depressive episodes: Results from the WHO World Mental Health Survey Initiative. Depress Anxiety. 2010; 27(4):351364. doi:10.1002/da.20634.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zimmerman, M, Balling, C, Chelminski, I, Dalrymple, K. Applying the inclusion/exclusion criteria in placebo-controlled studies to a clinical sample: A comparison of medications. J Affect Disord. 2020; 260:483488. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2019.09.012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rush, AJ, Fava, M, Wisniewski, SR, et al. Sequenced treatment alternatives to relieve depression (STAR*D): Rationale and design. Control Clin Trials. 2004; 25(1):119142. doi:10.1016/s0197-2456(03)00112-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van der Lem, R, de Wever, WW, van der Wee, NJ, van Veen, T, Cuijpers, P, Zitman, FG. The generalizability of psychotherapy efficacy trials in major depressive disorder: An analysis of the influence of patient selection in efficacy trials on symptom outcome in daily practice. BMC Psychiatry. 2012; 12:192. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-12-192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zimmerman, M, Clark, HL, Multach, MD, Walsh, E, Rosenstein, LK, Gazarian, D. Have treatment studies of depression become even less generalizable? A review of the inclusion and exclusion criteria used in Placebo-controlled antidepressant efficacy trials published during the past 20 years. Mayo Clin Proc. 2015; 90(9):11801186. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2015.06.016.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Judd, LL, Paulus, MP, Wells, KB, Rapaport, MH. Socioeconomic burden of subsyndromal depressive symptoms and major depression in a sample of the general population. Am J Psychiatry. 1996; 153(11):14111417. doi:10.1176/ajp.153.11.1411.Google Scholar
Pietrzak, RH, Kinley, J, Afifi, TO, Enns, MW, Fawcett, J, Sareen, J. Subsyndromal depression in the United States: Prevalence, course, and risk for incident psychiatric outcomes. Psychological Medicine. 2013; 43:14011414. doi: 10.1017/S0033291712002309.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Distribution of the civilian noninstitutionalized population for 2017–2018 by gender, age, and race/ethnicity domains. wwwn.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhanes3/ResponseRates/ACS-Population-Totals-For-2017-2018-508.pdf.Google Scholar
Kessler, RC, Chiu, WT, Demler, O, Merikangas, KR, Walters, EE. Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005; 62(6):617627. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.617.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cuijpers, P, Ciharova, M, Quero, S, et al. The contribution of “Individual Participant Data” meta-analyses of psychotherapies for depression to the development of personalized treatments: A systematic review. J Pers Med. 2022; 12(1). doi:10.3390/jpm12010093.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ünlü Ince, B, Riper, H, van’t Hof, E, Cuijpers, P. The effects of psychotherapy on depression among racial-ethnic minority groups: A metaregression analysis. Psychiatr Serv. 2014; 65(5):612617. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201300165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Amati, F, Green, J, Kitchin, L, et al. Ethnicity as a predictor of outcomes of psychological therapies for anxiety and depression: A retrospective cohort analysis. Behav Cogn Psychother. 2023; 51(2):164173. doi:10.1017/S1352465822000558.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Puyat, JH, Kazanjian, A, Goldner, EM, Wong, H. How often do individuals with major depression receive minimally adequate treatment? A population-based, data linkage study. Can J Psychiatry. 2016; 61(7):394404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prien, RF, Kupfer, DJ. Continuation drug therapy for major depressive episodes: How long should it be maintained? Am J Psychiatry. 1986; 143(1):1823. doi:10.1176/ajp.143.1.18.Google ScholarPubMed
Lewis, G, Marston, L, Duffy, L, et al. Maintenance or discontinuation of antidepressants in primary care. N Engl J Med. 2021; 385(14):12571267. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2106356.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pigott, HE, Leventhal, AM, Alter, GS, Boren, JJ. Efficacy and effectiveness of antidepressants: Current status of research. Psychother Psychosom. 2010; 79(5):267279. doi:10.1159/000318293.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Montgomery, SA, Asberg, M. A new depression scale designed to be sensitive to change. Br J Psychiatry. 1979; 134:382389. doi:10.1192/bjp.134.4.382.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nierenberg, AA, DeCecco, LM. Definitions of antidepressant treatment response, remission, nonresponse, partial response, and other relevant outcomes: A focus on treatment-resistant depression. J Clin Psychiatry. 2001; 62(Suppl 16):59.Google ScholarPubMed
Moncrieff, J, Kirsch, I. Empirically derived criteria cast doubt on the clinical significance of antidepressant-placebo differences. Contemp Clin Trials. 2015; 43:6062. doi:10.1016/j.cct.2015.05.005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummergen, K, Hannah, L, Jopling, L, Cameron, R, Walsh, C, Perez, J. What outcomes matter to service users who experience persistent depression: A mixed-method narrative review and synthesis. J Affect Disorder Rep. 2022; 10. doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2022.100431.Google Scholar
Shah, D, Vaidya, V, Patel, A, Borovicka, M, Goodman, MH. Assessment of health-related quality of life, mental health status and psychological distress based on the type of pharmacotherapy used among patients with depression. Qual Life Res. 2017; 26(4):969980. doi:10.1007/s11136-016-1417-0.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keller, MB, Ryan, ND, Strober, M, et al. Efficacy of paroxetine in the treatment of adolescent major depression: A randomized, controlled trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2001; 40(7):762772. doi:10.1097/00004583-200107000-00010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SmithKlineBeecham Pharmaceuticals. Protocol 29060/329: A multi-center, double-blind, placebo controlled study of paroxetine and imipramine in adolescents with unipolar major depression. 1996. www.gsk.com/media/1520/appendix-a.pdf.Google Scholar
McHenry, LB, Jureidini, JN. Industry-sponsored ghostwriting in clinical trial reporting: A case study. Account Res. 2008; 15(3):152167. doi:10.1080/08989620802194384.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allen, L, Scott, J, Brand, A, Hlava, M, Altman, M. Publishing: Credit where credit is due. Nature. 2014; 508(7496):312313. doi:10.1038/508312a.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huth, E, Case, K. The URM: Twenty-five years old. Science Editor. 2004; 27(1):1721.Google Scholar
Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. Am Psychol. 1992; 47(12):15971611. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.47.12.1597.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Le Noury, J, Nardo, JM, Healy, D, et al. Restoring Study 329: Efficacy and harms of paroxetine and imipramine in treatment of major depression in adolescence. BMJ. 2015; 351:h4320. doi:10.1136/bmj.h4320.Google ScholarPubMed
Le Noury, J, Nardo, JM, Healy, D, et al. Study 329 continuation phase: Safety and efficacy of paroxetine and imipramine in extended treatment of adolescent major depression. Int J Risk Saf Med. 2016; 28(3):143161. doi:10.3233/JRS-160728.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hovorka, M, Ewing, D, Middlemas, DS. Chronic SSRI treatment, but not norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor treatment, increases neurogenesis in juvenile rats. Int J Mol Sci. 2022; 23(13). doi:10.3390/ijms23136919.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doshi, P. No correction, no retraction, no apology, no comment: Paroxetine trial reanalysis raises questions about institutional responsibility. BMJ. 2015; 351:h4629. doi:10.1136/bmj.h4629.Google ScholarPubMed
Re-analysis of controversial Paxil study shows drug “ineffective and unsafe” for teens. Accessed March 26, 2023. https://retractionwatch.com/2015/09/16/re-analysis-of-controversial-paxil-study-shows-drug-ineffective-and-unsafe-for-teens/.Google Scholar
US Department of Justice, Office of Public Affairs. GlaxoSmithKline to Plead Guilty and Pay $3 Billion to Resolve Fraud Allegations and Failure to Report Safety Data. Accessed July 27, 2023. www.justice.gov/opa/pr/glaxosmithkline-plead-guilty-and-pay-3-billion-resolve-fraud-allegations-and-failure-report.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Major Depressive Disorder, 3rd ed. 2010.Google Scholar
Cosgrove, L, Shaughnessy, AF, Wheeler, EE, Austad, KE, Kirsch, I, Bursztajn, HJ. The American Psychiatric Association’s guideline for major depressive disorder: A commentary. Psychother Psychosom. 2012; 81(3):186188. doi:10.1159/000335523.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cosgrove, L, Bursztajn, HJ, Erlich, DR, Wheeler, EE, Shaughnessy, AF. Conflicts of interest and the quality of recommendations in clinical guidelines. J Eval Clin Pract. 2013; 19(4):674681. doi:10.1111/jep.12016.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ioannidis, JP. Effectiveness of antidepressants: An evidence myth constructed from a thousand randomized trials? Philos Ethics Humanit Med. 2008; 3:14. doi:10.1186/1747-5341-3-14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirsch, I. The Emperor’s New Drugs: Exploding the Antidepressant Myth. Basic Books; 2010:xiv, p. 226.Google Scholar
Hollon, SD. Is cognitive therapy enduring or antidepressant medications iatrogenic? Depression as an evolved adaptation. Am Psychol. 2020; 75(9):12071218. doi:10.1037/amp0000728.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jakobsen, JC, Gluud, C, Kirsch, I. Should antidepressants be used for major depressive disorder? BMJ Evid Based Med. 2020; 25(4):130. doi:10.1136/bmjebm-2019-111238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Health Organization. World mental health report: Transforming mental health for all (executive summary). 2022.Google Scholar
Rivero-Santana, A, Perestelo-Perez, L, Alvarez-Perez, Y, et al. Stepped care for the treatment of depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Affect Disord. 2021; 294:391409. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.07.008.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Correll, CU, Solmi, M, Cortese, S, et al. The future of psychopharmacology: A critical appraisal of ongoing phase 2/3 trials, and of some current trends aiming to de-risk trial programmes of novel agents. World Psychiatry. 2023; 22(1):4874. doi:10.1002/wps.21056.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carrillo, P, Petit, AC, Gaillard, R, Vinckier, F. The next psychoactive drugs: From imipramine to ketamine. Bull Acad Natl Med. 2020; 204(9):e169–e177. doi:10.1016/j.banm.2020.09.039.Google Scholar
Holper, L. Conditional power of antidepressant network meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry. 2021; 21(1):129. doi:10.1186/s12888-021-03094-5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kazdin, AE. Evidence-based treatment and practice: New opportunities to bridge clinical research and practice, enhance the knowledge base, and improve patient care. Am Psychol. 2008; 63(3):146159. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.63.3.146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cuijpers, P, Miguel, C, Harrer, M, et al. Cognitive behavior therapy vs. control conditions, other psychotherapies, pharmacotherapies and combined treatment for depression: A comprehensive meta-analysis including 409 trials with 52,702 patients. World Psychiatry. 2023; 22(1):105115. doi:10.1002/wps.21069.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ventres, W, Boelen, C, Haq, C. Time for action: Key considerations for implementing social accountability in the education of health professionals. Adv Health Sci Educ Theory Pract. 2018; 23(4):853862. doi:10.1007/s10459-017-9792-z.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frazzetto, G. The drugs don’t work for everyone. Doubts about the efficacy of antidepressants renew debates over the medicalization of common distress. EMBO Rep. 2008; 9(7):605608. doi:10.1038/embor.2008.116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×