Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-b6zl4 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-12T21:26:45.549Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Court-Ordered Community Service

The Experiences of Community Organizations and Community Service Workers

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 January 2025

Rebecca Nesbit
Affiliation:
University of Georgia
Su Young Choi
Affiliation:
University of Georgia
Jody Clay-Warner
Affiliation:
University of Georgia

Summary

Community service is a common court-ordered sanction in many countries. Individuals sentenced to community service must work a specified number of uncompensated hours at an approved community agency, typically as a condition of probation. A core expectation of court-ordered community service is that the community agencies benefit from this labor. However, very little research examines the organizational and interpersonal dynamics involved when community organizations work with court-ordered community service workers. What are local public and nonprofit organizations' experiences with court-ordered community service workers? How do the workers, themselves, experience court-ordered community service within community agencies? We address these questions through interviews with 31 volunteer managers and 34 court-ordered community service workers in two court jurisdictions in Northeast Georgia. We frame our findings within the volunteer management literature and suggest practices that could improve experiences for both the court-ordered community service worker and the community organization.
Get access
Type
Element
Information
Online ISBN: 9781009631778
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication: 30 January 2025

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alfes, K., Shantz, A., & Bailey, C. (2016). Enhancing volunteer engagement to achieve desirable outcomes: What can non-profit employers do? Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 27(2), 595617. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-015-9601-3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, G. F., & Treger, H. (1990). Community service orders in federal probation: Perceptions of probationers and host agencies. Federal Probation, 54(3), 8.Google Scholar
Anonymized Probation Office. (2018). Supervising Community Service Workers Packet.Google Scholar
Bauer, E. L., Crosse, S., McPherson, K., et al. (2014). Evaluation of the New York City Justice Corps: Final Outcome Report. Westat, Metis Associates.Google Scholar
Bazemore, G. (1991). New concepts and alternative practice in community supervision of juvenile offenders: Rediscovering work experience and competency development. Journal of Crime and Justice, 14(1), 2752.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bazemore, G., & Karp, D. (2004). A civic justice corps: Community service as a means of reintegration. Justice Policy Journal, 1(3), 135.Google Scholar
Bittschi, B., Pennerstorfer, A., & Schneider, U. (2019). The effect of volunteers on paid workers’ excess turnover in nonprofit and public organizations. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 39(2), 256275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boezeman, E. J., & Ellemers, N. (2008). Volunteer recruitment: The role of organizational support and anticipated respect in non-volunteers’ attraction to charitable volunteer organizations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 10131026. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.93.5.1013.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonczar, T. P. (1997). Characteristics of adults on probation, 1995. Traffic, 4(9), 1012.Google Scholar
Boone, M. (2010). Only for minor offences: Community service in the Netherlands. European Journal of Probation, 2(1), 2240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bouffard, J. A., & Muftic, L. R. (2006). Program completion and recidivism outcomes among adult offenders ordered to complete a community service sentence. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 43(2), 133. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v43n02_01.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brodie, E., Hughes, T., Jochum, V., et al. (2011). Pathways through Participation. London: NCVO, Involve, IVR.Google Scholar
Brown, B. (1977). Community service as a condition of probation. Federal Probation, 41, 7.Google Scholar
Brudney, J. L. (2010). Designing and managing volunteer programs. In Renz, D. O. (Ed.), The Jossey-Bass Handbook of Nonprofit Leadership and Management (3rd ed., pp. 753793). John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Brudney, J. L. (2016). Designing and managing volunteer programs. In Renz, D. O. & Herman, R. D. (Eds.), The Jossey-Bass Handbook of Nonprofit Leadership and Management (4th ed., pp. 688–733). Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Brudney, J. L., & Meijs, L. C. (2014). Models of volunteer management: Professional volunteer program management in social work. Human Service Organizations: Management, Leadership & Governance, 38(3), 297309.Google Scholar
Cable, D. M., Gino, F., & Staats, B. R. (2013). Reinventing employee onboarding. MIT Sloan Management Review, 54(3), 23.Google Scholar
Carter, R. M., Cocks, J., & Glaser, D. (1987). Community service: A review of the basic issues. Federal Probation, 51, 4.Google Scholar
Cohen, S. (2008). The Responsible Contract Manager: Protecting the Public Interest in an Outsourced World. Georgetown University Press.Google Scholar
Connors, T. D. (2011). The Volunteer Management Handbook: Leadership Strategies for Success (2nd ed.). Wiley.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cuskelly, G., Taylor, T., Hoye, R., & Darcy, S. (2006). Volunteer management practices and volunteer retention: A human resource management approach. Sport Management Review, 9(2), 141163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DiMaggio, P., & Powell, W. W. (2010). The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields (translated by G. Yudin). Journal of Economic Sociology, 11(1), 3456. https://doi.org/10.17323/1726-3247-2010-1-34-56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doherty, F. (2016). Obey all laws and be good: Probation and the meaning of recidivism. Georgetown Law Journal, 104(2), 291354.Google Scholar
Dünkel, F., & Lappi-Seppälä, T. (2014). Community service in Europe: Encyclopedia of criminology and criminal justice. In Bruinsma, G. & Weisburd, D. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice (pp. 426442). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5690-2_567.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dwyer, P. C., Bono, J. E., Snyder, M., Nov, O., & Berson, Y. (2013). Sources of volunteer motivation: Transformational leadership and personal motives influence volunteer outcomes. Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 24(2), 181205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Einolf, C. (2018). Evidence-based volunteer management: A review of the literature. Voluntary Sector Review, 9, 153176. https://doi.org/10.1332/204080518X15299334470348.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eisner, D., Grimm, R. T. Jr., Maynard, S., & Washburn, S. (2009). The new volunteer workforce. Stanford Social Innovation Review, 7(1), 3237.Google Scholar
Fallon, B. J., & Rice, S. M. (2015). Investment in staff development within an emergency services organisation: Comparing future intention of volunteers and paid employees. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26(4), 485500.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farmer, S. M., & Fedor, D. B. (2001). Changing the focus on volunteering: An investigation of volunteers’ multiple contributions to a charitable organization. Journal of Management, 27(2), 191211. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920630102700204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feeley, M. M., Berk, R., & Campbell, A. (1992). Between two extremes: An examination of the efficiency and effectiveness of community service orders and their implications for the US sentencing guidelines. Southern California Law Review, 66, 155.Google Scholar
Finkelstein, M. A. (2008). Volunteer satisfaction and volunteer action: A functional approach. Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 36(1), 917.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Florida Department of Corrections. (2018). 2017–18 Annual Report. Florida Department of Corrections. www.dc.state.fl.us/pub/index.html.Google Scholar
Frenzel, J. (2021). Recruitment, screening, and management: Volunteer staffing and development. In Seel, K. & Bennett, J. R. (Eds.), Volunteer Administration: Professional Practice (4th ed., pp. 121144). LexisNexis Canada.Google Scholar
Galindo-Kuhn, R., & Guzley, R. M. (2001). The volunteer satisfaction index: Construct definition, measurement, development, and validation. Journal of Social Service Research, 28(1), 4568.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaskin, K. (2003). A Choice Blend: What Volunteers Want from Organisation and Management. Institute for Volunteering Research.Google Scholar
Gazley, B., & Brudney, J. L. (2005). Volunteer involvement in local government after September 11: The continuing question of capacity. Public Administration Review, 65(2), 131142. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2005.00439.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gelsthorpe, L., & Rex, S. (2004). Community service as reintegration: Exploring the potential. In Mair, G. (Ed.), What Matters in Probation (pp. 229–254). Routledge.Google Scholar
Georgia Department of Community Supervision. (2017). 2017 Annual Report. Georgia Department of Community Supervision. https://view.joomag.com/dcs-annual-report-2017/0227506001515682749?short.Google Scholar
Giguere, R., & Dundes, L. (2002). Help wanted: A survey of employer concerns about hiring ex-convicts. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 13(4), 396408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graff, L. L. (2005). Best of All: The Quick Reference Guide to Effective Volunteer Involvement. Linda Graff and Associates.Google Scholar
Graff, L. L. (2012). Risk management in volunteer involvement. In Connors, T. D. (Ed.), The Volunteer Management Handbook (2nd ed., pp. 323360). John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Grube, J. A., & Piliavin, J. A. (2000). Role identity, organizational experiences and volunteer performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(9), 11081119. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672002611007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hager, M. A. (2004). Volunteer Management Capacity in America’s Charities and Congregations: A Briefing Report. Urban Institute.Google Scholar
Hager, M. A., & Brudney, J. L. (2004). Volunteer Management Practices and Retention of Volunteers. The Urban Institute. www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/58001/411005-Volunteer-Management-Practices-and-Retention-of-Volunteers.PDF.Google Scholar
Hager, M. A., & Brudney, J. L. (2008). Management capacity and retention of volunteers. Challenges in Volunteer Management, 1, 927.Google Scholar
Hager, M. A., & Brudney, J. L. (2011). Problems recruiting volunteers: Nature versus nurture. Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 22(2), 137157. https://doi.org/10.1002/nml.20046.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hager, M. A., & Renfro, K. T. (2020). Volunteer management and the psychological contract. In Anheier, H. and Toepler, S. (Eds.), The Routledge Companion to Nonprofit Management (pp. 278290). Routledge. www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315181011-22/volunteer-management-psychological-contract-mark-hager-kathy-renfro.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harland, A. T. (1980). Court-ordered community service in criminal law: The continuing tyranny of benevolence. Buffalo Law Review, 29, 425.Google Scholar
Hart, H. M. (1954). The relations between state and federal law. Columbia Law Review, 54(4), 489542.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hasselmann, A. R. (2013). Successful strategies for recruitment of emergency medical volunteers. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 7(3), 266271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herman, M. L. (2021). Risk management. In Seel, K. (Ed.), Volunteer Administration: Professional Practice (4th ed.). LexisNexis Canada.Google Scholar
Hidalgo, M. C., & Moreno, P. (2009). Organizational socialization of volunteers: The effect on their intention to remain. Journal of Community Psychology, 37(5), 594601.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hirschfield, P. J., & Piquero, A. R. (2010). Normalization and legitimation: Modeling stigmatizing attitudes toward ex-offenders. Criminology, 48(1), 2755.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hobson, C. J. (2007). The importance of initial assignment quality and staff treatment of new volunteers: A field test of the Hobson-Heler model of nonprofit agency “volunteer-friendliness.” International Journal of Volunteer Administration, 14(6), 4756.Google Scholar
Hobson, C. J., Rominger, A., Malec, K., Hobson, C. L., & Evans, K. (1997). Volunteer-friendliness of nonprofit agencies: Definition, conceptual model, and applications. Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing, 4(4), 2741.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Home Office. (1970). Non-custodial and Semi-custodial Penalties: Report of the Advisory Council on the Penal System. HMSOGoogle Scholar
Huebner, B. M., & Shannon, S. K. S. (2022). Private probation costs, compliance, and the proportionality of punishment: Evidence from Georgia and Missouri. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 8(1), 179199. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2022.8.1.08.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huynh, J.-Y., Metzer, J. C., & Winefield, A. H. (2012). Engaged or connected? A perspective of the motivational pathway of the job demands-resources model in volunteers working for nonprofit organizations. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 23, 870898.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Illinois Criminal Justice Information Authority. (2011). Examining Illinois Probationer Characteristics and Outcomes. Illinois Criminal Justice Information Authority. www.jrsa.org/awards/winners/11_Illinois_Probationer_Characteristics.pdf.Google Scholar
Jackson, R., Locke, M., Hogg, E., & Lynch, R. (2019). The Complete Volunteer Management Handbook (4th ed.). Directory of Social Change.Google Scholar
Jamison, I. B. (2003). Turnover and retention among volunteers in human service agencies. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 23(2), 114132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaeble, D. (2018). Probation and Parole in the United States, 2016 (NCJ 251148). Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice. www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=6188.Google Scholar
Killias, M., Aebi, M., & Ribeaud, D. (2000). Does community service rehabilitate better than short-term imprisonment?: Results of a controlled experiment. The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, 39(1), 4057.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Killias, M., Gilliéron, G., Kissling, I., & Villettaz, P. (2010). Community service versus electronic monitoring – What works better?: Results of a randomized trial. The British Journal of Criminology, 50(6), 11551170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Killias, M., Gilliéron, G., Villard, F., & Poglia, C. (2010). How damaging is imprisonment in the long-term? A controlled experiment comparing long-term effects of community service and short custodial sentences on re-offending and social integration. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 6(2), 115130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, M., Chelladurai, P., & Trail, G. T. (2007). A model of volunteer retention in youth sport. Journal of Sport Management, 21(2), 151171. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.21.2.151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, A. (1982). The theater connection. Training Manual for a Court Employment and Training Program, Governors Youth Grant. Quincey District Court.Google Scholar
Klingele, C. (2013). Rethinking the use of community supervision. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 103, 1015.Google Scholar
Knapp, M., Robertson, E., & McIvor, G. (1992). The comparative costs of community service and custody in Scotland. The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, 31(1), 830.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kolnick, L., & Mulder, J. (2007). Strategies to improve recruitment of male volunteers in nonprofit agencies. American Journal of Hospice & Palliative Medicine, 24(2), 98104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kulik, L. (2006). Burnout among volunteers in the social services: The impact of gender and employment status. Journal of Community Psychology, 34(5), 541561.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kyrwood, D. L., & Meneghetti, M. M. (2010). Volunteer staffing and development. In Seel, K. (Ed.), Volunteer Administration: Professional Practice (pp. 143209). LexisNexis Canada.Google Scholar
Lloyd, C., Mair, G., & Hough, J. M. (1994). Explaining Reconviction Rates: A Critical Analysis. HM Stationery Office.Google Scholar
MacDuff, N. (2012). Volunteer and staff relations. In Connors, T. D. (Ed.), The Volunteer Management Handbook: Leadership Strategies for Success (2nd ed., pp. 206221). John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Machin, J., & Paine, A. E. (2008). Management Matters: A National Survey of Volunteer Management Capacity. Institute for Volunteering Research.Google Scholar
Mair, G., & Canton, R. (2007). Sentencing, community penalties and the role of the Probation Service. In Gelsthorpe, L., Morgan, R. (Eds.), Handbook of Probation (248–291). Willan.Google Scholar
May, C. (1999). Explaining Reconviction Following a Community Sentence: The Role of Social Factors. Home Office London.Google Scholar
Mayr, M. L. (2017). Transformational leadership and volunteer firefighter engagement. Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 28(2), 259270. https://doi.org/10.1002/nml.21279.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDonald, D. (1986). Punishment without Walls: Community Service Sentences in New York City. Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
McDonald, D. (1988). Restitution and Community Service. US Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.Google Scholar
McIvor, G. (1992). Sentenced to Serve: The Operation and Impact of Community Service by Offenders. Avebury.Google Scholar
McIvor, G. (1993a). Community service by offenders: Agency experiences and attitudes. Research on Social Work Practice, 3(1), 6682. https://doi.org/10.1177/104973159300300104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McIvor, G. (1993b). Community service by offenders: How much does the community benefit? Research on Social Work Practice, 3(4), 385403. https://doi.org/10.1177/104973159300300402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McIvor, G. (2016). What is the impact of community service? In MacNeill, F., Durnescu, I., & Butter, R. (Eds.), Probation: 12 Essential Questions (pp. 107128). Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
McIvor, G., Beyens, K., Blay, E., & Boone, M. (2010). Community service in Belgium, the Netherlands, Scotland and Spain: A comparative perspective. European Journal of Probation, 2(1), 8298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meijs, L., & Brudney, J. L. (2007). Winning volunteer scenarios: The soul of a new machine. International Journal of Volunteer Administration, 24(6), 6879.Google Scholar
Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldaña, J. (2020). Qualitative Data Analysis: A Methods Sourcebook (Griffin Georgia Experiment Station H62 .M437 2020; 4th ed.). SAGE.Google Scholar
Mitchell, S.-L., & Clark, M. (2020). Volunteer choice of nonprofit organisation: An integrated framework. European Journal of Marketing, 55(1), 6394. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJM-05-2019-0427.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muiluvuori, M.-L. (2001). Recidivism among people sentenced to community service in Finland. Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology & Crime Prevention, 2(1), 7282. https://doi.org/10.1080/140438501317205556.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nesbit, R. (2024). Leading and managing volunteers. In Renz, D. O., Brown, W. A., & Andersson, F. (Eds.), The Jossey-Bass Handbook of Nonprofit Leadership and Management (5th ed., pp. 679716). Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Office of Justice Research and Performance. (2016). Executive Law Article 13-A Classification/Alternatives to Incarceration Program 2015 Annual Report (Legislative Report Series). Division of Criminal Justice Services. www.criminaljustice.ny.gov/crimnet/ojsa/Annual-13A-Legislative-Report-2015.pdf.Google Scholar
Pearce, J. L. (1993). Volunteers: The Organizational Behavior of Unpaid Workers.Google Scholar
Pease, K. (1985). Community service orders. Crime and Justice, 6, 5194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phelps, M. S. (2013). The Paradox of probation: Community supervision in the age of mass incarceration: The paradox of probation. Law & Policy, 35(1–2), 5180. https://doi.org/10.1111/lapo.12002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Phelps, M. S. (2020). Mass probation from micro to macro: Tracing the expansion and consequences of community supervision. Annual Review of Criminology, 3(1), 261279. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-criminol-011419-041352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prince, W., & Piatak, J. (2022). By the volunteer, for the volunteer: Volunteer perspectives of management across levels of satisfaction. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 52(5), 11911209. https://doi.org/10.1177/08997640221127974.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rehnborg, S. J., Bailey, W. L., Moore, M., & Sinatra, C. (2009). Strategic volunteer engagement: A guide for nonprofit and public sector leaders. RGK Center for Philanthropy & Community Service. https://www.volunteeralive.org/docs/Strategic%20Volunteer%20Engagement.pdf.Google Scholar
Rex, S., & Gelsthorpe, L. (2002). The role of community service in reducing offending: Evaluating Pathfinder projects in the UK. The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, 41(4), 311325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rimes, H., Nesbit, R., Christensen, R. K., & Brudney, J. L. (2017). Exploring the dynamics of volunteer and staff interactions. Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 28(2), 195213. https://doi.org/10.1002/nml.21277.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogelberg, S. G., Allen, J. A., Conway, J. M., et al. (2010). Employee experiences with volunteers. Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 20(4), 423444. https://doi.org/10.1002/nml.20003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rubin, A. T. (2015). A neo-institutional account of prison diffusion. Law & Society Review, 49(2), 365400. https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saldaña, J. (2016). The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers (Griffin Georgia Experiment Station H62 .S343 2016; 3E.). SAGE.Google Scholar
Schiff, M. (2003). Models, promises and the promise of restorative justice strategies. In Von Hirsch, A., Roberts, J., Bottoms, A. E., Roach, K., & Schiff, M. (Eds.), Restorative Justice and Criminal Justice: Competing or Reconcilable Paradigms (pp. 315338). Hart.Google Scholar
Schneider, S. K., & George, W. M. (2011). Servant leadership versus transformational leadership in voluntary service organizations. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 32(1), 6077. https://doi.org/10.1108/01437731111099283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schreiner, E., Trent, S. B., Prange, K. A., & Allen, J. A. (2018). Leading volunteers: Investigating volunteers’ perceptions of leaders’ behavior and gender. Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 29(2), 241260. https://doi.org/10.1002/nml.21331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shichor, D. (2000). Penal policies at the threshold of the twenty-first century. Criminal Justice Review, 25(1), 130. https://doi.org/10.1177/073401680002500103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spaans, E. C. (1998). Community service in the Netherlands: Its effects on recidivism and net-widening. International Criminal Justice Review, 8(1), 114. https://doi.org/10.1177/105756779800800101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Studer, S. (2016). Volunteer management: Responding to the uniqueness of volunteers. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 45(4), 688714.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stukas, A. A., Worth, K. A., Clary, E. G., & Snyder, M. (2009). The matching of motivations to affordances in the volunteer environment: An index for assessing the impact of multiple matches on volunteer outcomes. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 38(1), 528. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764008314810.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Teegardin, C. (2015, November 19). Georgia leads nation in probation. The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. www.ajc.com/news/crime–law/georgia-leads-nation-probation/4DgAXu3UHx5716BmSfYLVP/.Google Scholar
Tonry, M. (1999). Community penalties in the United States. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 7(1), 522. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008755227099.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tonry, M., & Lynch, M. (1996). Intermediate sanctions. Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, 20, 99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uggen, C., Manza, J., & Behrens, A. (2004). Less than the average citizen: Stigma, role transition and the civic reintegration of convicted felons. In Maruna, S. & Immarigeon, R. (Eds.), After Crime and Punishment: Pathways to Offender Reintegration (pp. 261293). Willan. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781843924203.Google Scholar
Uggen, C., Vuolo, M., Lageson, S., Ruhland, E., & Whitham, H. K. (2014). The edge of stigma: An experimental audit of the effects of low-level criminal records on employment. Criminology, 52(4), 627654.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
United States Sentencing Commisison. (2023). Guidelines Manual §3E1.1. https://www.ussc.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/guidelines-manual/2023/GLMFull.pdf.Google Scholar
UPS Foundation. (2002). A Guide to Investing in Volunteer Resources Management: Improve Your Philanthropic Portfolio. Points of Light Foundation and Volunteer Center National Network. www.ellisarchive.org/sites/default/files/2019-08/Document_20190806_0003_2.pdf.Google Scholar
Van Schie, S., Güntert, S. T., Oostlander, J., & Wehner, T. (2015). How the organizational context impacts volunteers: A differentiated perspective on self-determined motivation. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 26, 15701590.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wandersman, A., & Alderman, J. (1993). Incentives, costs, and barriers for volunteers: A staff perspective on volunteers in one state. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 13(1), 6776. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371X9301300106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wermink, H., Blokland, A., Nieuwbeerta, P., Nagin, D., & Tollenaar, N. (2010). Comparing the effects of community service and short-term imprisonment on recidivism: A matched samples approach. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 6(3), 325349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wisner, P. S., Stringfellow, A., Youngdahl, W. E., & Parker, L. (2005). The service volunteer – loyalty chain: An exploratory study of charitable not-for-profit service organizations. Journal of Operations Management, 23(2), 143161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jom.2004.07.003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, W. R. (2012). Correcting community service: From work crews to community work in a juvenile court. Justice Quarterly, 29(5), 684711. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2011.576688.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save element to Kindle

To save this element to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Court-Ordered Community Service
Available formats
×

Save element to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Court-Ordered Community Service
Available formats
×

Save element to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Court-Ordered Community Service
Available formats
×