Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-ndw9j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T06:47:55.976Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Explaining Technology

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 August 2023

Roger Koppl
Affiliation:
Syracuse University, New York
Roberto Cazzolla Gatti
Affiliation:
Università di Bologna
Abigail Devereaux
Affiliation:
Wichita State University, Kansas
Brian D. Fath
Affiliation:
Towson University, Maryland
James Herriot
Affiliation:
Herriot Research
Wim Hordijk
Affiliation:
SmartAnalytiX
Stuart Kauffman
Affiliation:
Institute for Systems Biology, Washington
Robert E. Ulanowicz
Affiliation:
University of Florida
Sergi Valverde
Affiliation:
Spanish National Research Council

Summary

A long tradition explains technological change as recombination. Within this tradition, this Element develops an innovative combinatorial model of technological change and tests it with 2,000 years of global GDP data and with data from US patents filed between 1835 and 2010. The model explains 1) the pace of technological change for a least the past two millennia, 2) patent citations and 3) the increasing complexity of tools over time. It shows that combining and modifying pre-existing goods to produce new goods generates the observed historical pattern of technological change. A long period of stasis was followed by sudden super-exponential growth in the number of goods. In this model, the sudden explosion of about 250 years ago is a combinatorial explosion that was a long time in coming, but inevitable once the process began at least two thousand years ago. This Element models the Industrial Revolution as a combinatorial explosion.
Get access
Type
Element
Information
Online ISBN: 9781009386289
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication: 31 August 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aiello, L. C., and Dunbar, R. I.. 1993. “Neocortex size, group size, and the evolution of language.” Current Anthropology, 34(2): 184193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aldrich, H., Hodgson, G., Hull, D. et al. 2008. “In defence of generalised Darwinism.” Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 18(5): 577596.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Almudi, I., and Fatas-Villafranca, F. 2021. Coevolution in Economic Systems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Alvarez, S. A., Barney, J. B., and Anderson, P. 2013. “Forming and exploiting opportunities: The implications of discovery and creation processes for entrepreneurial and organizational research.” Organization Science, 24(1): 301317.Google Scholar
Álvarez-Nogal, C., and Prados de la Escosura, L. 2013. “The rise and fall of Spain (1270–1850).” Economic History Review, 66: 137.Google Scholar
Ambrose, S. H. 2001. “Paleolithic technology and human evolution.” Science, 291: 17481753.Google Scholar
Arifovic, J., Bullard, J., and Duffy, J. 1997. “The transition from stagnation to growth: An adaptive learning approach.” Journal of Economic Growth, 2: 185209.Google Scholar
Arthur, W. B. 1994. “Inductive reasoning and bounded rationality.” American Economic Review: Papers and Proceedings, 84: 406411.Google Scholar
Arthur, W. B. 2007. “The structure of invention.” Research Policy, 36(2): 274287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arthur, W. B. 2009. The Nature of Technology: What It Is and How It Evolves. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Arthur, W. B., and Polak, W. 2006. “The evolution of technology within a simple computer model.” Complexity, 11(5): 2331.Google Scholar
Baker, T., and Nelson, R. 2005. “Creating something from nothing: Resource construction through entrepreneurial bricolage.” Administrative Science Quarterly, 50(3): 329366.Google Scholar
Bambach, R. K. 1983. “Ecospace utilization and guilds in marine communities through the Phanerozoic.” In Tevesz, M. J. S. and McCall, P. L. (eds.), Biotic Interactions in Recent and Fossil Benthic Communities. Boston, MA: Springer, pp. 719746.Google Scholar
Barkow, J. H., Cosmides, L., and Tooby, J. (eds.). 1992. The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bastolla, U., Fortuna, M. A., Pascual-García, A. et al. 2009. “The architecture of mutualistic networks minimizes competition and increases biodiversity.” Nature, 458(7241): 10181020.Google Scholar
Bedau, M. A. 2014. “Testing bottom-up models of complex citation networks.” Philosophy of Science, 81(5): 11311143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beinhocker, E. D. 2006. The Origin of Wealth: Evolution, Complexity, and the Radical Remaking of Economics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business Review Press.Google Scholar
Beinhocker, E. D. 2011. “Evolution as computation: Integrating self-organization with generalized Darwinism.” Journal of Institutional Economics, 7(3): 393423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bentley, A. R., Hahn, M. W., and Shennan, S. J. 2004. “Random drift and culture change.” Proceedings: Biological Sciences, 271(1547): 14431450.Google Scholar
Benton, M. J., and Emerson, B. C. 2007. “How did life become so diverse? The dynamics of diversification according to the fossil record and molecular phylogenetics.” Palaeontology, 50(1): 2340.Google Scholar
Bergstrom, A., Stringer, C., Hajdinjak, M., Scerri, E. M. L., and Skoglund, P. 2021. “Origins of modern human ancestry.” Nature, 590: 229237.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blegen, N. 2017. “The earliest long-distance obsidian transport: Evidence from the ~200 ka Middle Stone Age Sibilo School Road Site, Baringo, Kenya.” Journal of Human Evolution, 103: 119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blegen, N., Jicha, B. R., and McBrearty, S. 2018. “A new tephrochronology for early diverse stone tool technologies and long-distance raw material transport in the Middle to Late Pleistocene Kapthurin Formation, East Africa.” Journal of Human Evolution, 121: 75103.Google Scholar
Boudagher-Fadel, M. K. 2018. “Biology and evolutionary history of larger benthic foraminifera.” In Boudagher-Fadel, M. K., Evolution and Geological Significance of Larger Benthic Foraminifera, 2nd ed. London: UCL Press, pp. 144. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvqhsq3.3.Google Scholar
Boyd, R., and Richerson, P. J. 1985. Culture and the Evolutionary Process. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Boyd, R., and Richerson, P. J. 2021. “Large-scale cooperation in small-scale foraging societies.” EcoEvoRxiv. May 17. DOI: https://doi.org/10.32942/osf.io/fxwbr.Google Scholar
Boyd, R., Richerson, P. J., and Henrich, J. 2013. “The cultural evolution of technology: Facts and theory.” In Richerson, P. J. and Christiansen, M. H. (eds.), Cultural Evolution: Society, Technology, Language, and Religion. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, pp. 119142.Google Scholar
Broadberry, S., Campbell, B., Klein, A., Overton, M., and van Leeuwen, B. 2015. British Economic Growth: 1270–1870. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Brooks, A. S., Yellen, J. E., Potts, R. et al. 2018. “Long-distance stone transport and pigment use in the earliest Middle Stone Age.” Science, 360: 9094.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, D. T. 1965. “Variation and selective retention in socio-cultural evolution.” In Barringer, H. R., Blanksten, G. I., and Mack, R. W. (eds.), Social Change in Developing Areas: A Reinterpretation of Evolutionary Theory. Cambridge, MA: Schenkman Publishing Company, pp. 1949.Google Scholar
Cazzolla Gatti, R. 2011. “Evolution is a cooperative process: The biodiversity-related niches differentiation theory (BNDT) can explain why.” Theoretical Biology Forum, 104(1): 3543.Google Scholar
Cazzolla Gatti, R., Fath, B., Hordijk, W., Kauffman, S., and Ulanowicz, R. 2018. “Niche emergence as an autocatalytic process in the evolution of ecosystems.” Journal of Theoretical Biology, 454: 110117.Google Scholar
Cazzolla Gatti, R., Hordijk, W., and Kauffman, S. (2017). “Biodiversity is autocatalytic.” Ecological Modelling, 346: 7076.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cazzolla Gatti, R., Koppl, R., Fath, B. et al. 2020. “On the emergence of ecological and economic niches.” Journal of Bioeconomics, 22(2): 99127.Google Scholar
Chaitin, G., da Costa, N., and Doria, F. A. 2012. Gödel’s Way: Exploits into an Undecidable World. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.Google Scholar
Chen, C., and Hicks, D. 2004. “Tracing knowledge diffusion.” Scientometrics, 59(2): 199211.Google Scholar
Clark, G. 2007. A Farewell to Alms: A Brief Economic History of the World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Clark, R. W. 1985. The Life of Ernst Chain: Penicillin and Beyond. New York: St. Martin’s Press.Google Scholar
Clower, R. W. 1965. “The Keynesian counter-revolution: A theoretical appraisal.” In Hahn, F. H. and Brechling, F. P. R. (eds.), The Theory of Interest Rates. London: Macmillan, pp. 103125.Google Scholar
Cohen, W. M., and Levinthal, D. A. 1990. “Absorptive capacity: A new perspective on learning and innovation.” Administrative Science Quarterly, 35(1):128152.Google Scholar
Comin, D., and Hobijn, B. 2010. “An exploration of technology diffusion.” American Economic Review, 100, 20312059. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.100.5.2031.Google Scholar
Conway, M. S. 2006. “Darwin’s dilemma: The realities of the Cambrian ‘explosion’.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 361(1470): 10691083.Google Scholar
Cortês, M., Kauffman, S. A., Liddle, A. R. and Smolin, L. “The TAP equation: evaluating combinatorial innovation,” arXiv:2204.14115.Google Scholar
Crafts, N. F. R. 1977. “Industrial Revolution in England and France: Some thoughts on the question, ‘Why was England first?’” The Economic History Review, 30(3): 429441.Google Scholar
da Costa, N. C. A., and Doria, F. A. 1991. “Undecidability and incompleteness in classical mechanics.” International Journal of Theoretical Physics, 30: 10411073.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dam, K. W. The Law-Growth Nexus: The Rule of Law and Economic Development. Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Debreu, G. 1959. Theory of Value. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Deino, A. L. et al. 2018. “Chronology of the Acheulean to Middle Stone Age transition in eastern Africa.” Science, 360: 9598.Google Scholar
Devereaux, A., Koppl, R., Kauffman, S., and Roli, A. 2021. “An incompleteness result regarding within-system modeling.” SSRN 3968077.Google Scholar
Domínguez-Rodrigo, M., Cobo-Sánchez, L., Aramendi, J., and Gidna, A. 2019. “The meta-group social network of early humans: A temporal-spatial assessment of group size at FLK Zinj (Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania).” Journal of Human Evolution, 127: 5466.Google Scholar
Dopfer, K., Foster, J., and Potts, J. 2004. “Micro-meso-macro.” Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 14(3): 263279. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00191-004-0193-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunbar, R. I. M. 1992. “Neocortex size as a constraint on group size in primates.” Journal of Human Evolution, 20: 469493.Google Scholar
Dunbar, R. I. M. 1998. “The social brain hypothesis.” Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews, 6(5): 178190.Google Scholar
Dunbar, R. I. M. 2020. “Structure and function in human and primate social networks: Implications for diffusion, network stability and health.” Proceedings of the Royal Society A, 476: 20200446.Google Scholar
Dunbar, R. I. M. 2021. Friends: Understanding the Power of Our Most Important Relationships. London: Little, Brown.Google Scholar
Dutta, R. D. K., Levine, N. W., and Papageorge, L. W. 2018. “Entertaining Malthus, circuses, and economic growth.” Economic Inquiry, 56: 358380.Google Scholar
Enkel, E., Groemminger, A., and Heil, S. 2018. “Managing technological distance in internal and external collaborations: Absorptive capacity routines and social integration for innovation.” Journal of Technology Transfer, 43(5): 12571290.Google Scholar
Elton, C. S. 1927. Animal Ecology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Estoup, J. B. 1916. Gammes Stenographiques. Paris: Institut Stenographique de France.Google Scholar
Fath, B. D. 2007. “Network mutualism: Positive community level relations in ecosystems.” Ecological Modelling, 208: 5667.Google Scholar
Fath, B. D., and Müller, F. 2019. “Conbiota.” In Fath, B. D. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Ecology (2nd ed.), pp. 274280.Google Scholar
Felin, T., Koenderink, J., and Krueger, J. 2017. “Rationality, perception, and the all-seeing eye.” Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 24: 10401059.Google Scholar
Felin, T., Koenderink, J., and Krueger, J. 2018. “Cues, minds, and equilibria: Responses and extenstions.” Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 25: 813826.Google Scholar
Fink, T. M. A., and Reeves, M. 2019. “How much can we influence the rate of innovation?Science Advances, 5(1): eaat6107.Google Scholar
Fink, T. M. A., Reeves, M., Palma, R., and Farr, R. S. 2017. “Serendipity and strategy in rapid innovation.” Nature Communications, 8(1): 2002.Google Scholar
Fisher, J., and Hinde, R. A. (1949). “The opening of milk bottles by birds.” British Birds, 42: 347357.Google Scholar
Fleming, A. 1929. “On the antibacterial action of cultures of a penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae.” The British Journal of Experimental Pathology, 10: 226236. (Reprinted in Reviews of Infectious Diseases, 1980, 2(1): 129–139.)Google Scholar
Fleming, L., and Sorenson, O. 2001. “Technology as a complex adaptive system: Evidence from patent data.” Research Policy, 30: 10191039.Google Scholar
Foss, N. J., and Klein, P. G. 2012. Organizing Entrepreneurial Judgment. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Foss, N. J., and Klein, P. G. 2020. “Entrepreneurial opportunities: Who needs them?Academy of Management Perspectives, 34: 366377.Google Scholar
Foster, J. 2021. “In search of a suitable heuristic for evolutionary economics: From generalized Darwinism to economic self-organisation,” MPRA Paper No. 106146. Online at https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/106146/.Google Scholar
Galor, O., and Weil, D. N. 2000. “Population, technology, and growth: From Malthusian stagnation to the demographic transition and beyond.” American Economic Review, 90: 806828.Google Scholar
Garud, R., and Karnøe, P. 2003. “Bricolage versus breakthrough: Distributed and embedded agency in technology entrepreneurship.” Research Policy, 32: 277300.Google Scholar
Gibbon, R. J., Ganger, D. E., Kuman, K., and Partridge, T. C. 2009. “Early Acheulean technology in the Rietputs Formation, South Africa, dated with cosmogenic nuclides.” Journal of Human Evolution, 56: 152160.Google Scholar
Gilsing, V., Nooteboom, B., Vanhaverbeke, W., Duysters, G., and Ad., van den Oord 2008. “Network embeddedness and the exploration of novel technologies: Technological distance, betweenness centrality and density.” Research Policy, 37: 17171731.Google Scholar
Golan, O., and Moav, O. 2002. “Natural selection and the origin of economic growth.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 67(4): 11331191.Google Scholar
Goldstone, J. A. 2002. “Efflorescences and economic growth in world history: Rethinking the ‘rise of the West’ and the Industrial Revolution.” Journal of World History, 13(2): 323389.Google Scholar
Goren-Inbar, N., and Belfer-Cohen, A. 2020. “Reappraisal of hominin group size in the Lower Paleolithic: An introduction to the special issue.” Journal of Human Evolution, 144: 102821.Google Scholar
Griliches, Z. 1979. “Issues in assessing the contribution of research and development to productivity growth.” The Bell Journal of Economics, 10(1): 92116.Google Scholar
Haldane, J. B. S. 1956. “Time in biology.” Science Progress, 44(175): 385402.Google Scholar
Hansell, M. 2011. “Houses made by portists.” Current Biology, 21(13): R485R487.Google Scholar
Harmand, S., Lewis, J. E., Feibel, C. S. et al. 2015. “3.3-million-year-old stone tools from Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya.” Nature, 521: 310315.Google Scholar
Harper, D. A. 2018. “Innovation and institutions from the bottom up: An introduction.” Journal of Institutional Economics, 14(6): 9751001.Google Scholar
Hausmann, R., and Hidalgo, C. A. 2011. “The network structure of economic output.” Journal of Economic Growth, 16: 309342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hausmann, R., Hidalgo, C. A., Bustos, S. et al. 2013. The Atlas of Economic Complexity. Massachusetts Institutional Technology Press.Google Scholar
Hayek, F. A. 1948. Individualism and Economic Order. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Hayek, F. A. 1952. The Sensory Order. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Henrich, J. 2016. The Secret of Our Success. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Henrich, J. 2020. The WEIRDest People in the World: How the West Became Psychologically Peculiar and Particularly Prosperous. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.Google Scholar
Hidalgo, C. A., Klinger, B., Barabási, A. L., Hausmann, R. 2007. “The product space conditions the development of nations.” Science, 317: 482487.Google Scholar
Heron-Allen, E. 1915. “A short statement upon the theory, and the phenomena of purpose and intelligence exhibited by the protozoa, as illustrated by selection and behaviour in the forminnifera.” Journal of Microscopy, 35(6): 547557.Google Scholar
Hodgson, G. 2007. “The revival of Veblenian institutional economics.” Journal of Economic Issues, 41(2): 324340.Google Scholar
Hodgson, G., and Knudsen, T. 2010. Darwin’s Conjecture: The Search for General Principles of Social and Economic Evolution. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Hordijk, W., and Steel, M. 2017. “Chasing the tail: The emergence of autocatalytic networks.” BioSystems, 152:110.Google Scholar
Howie, J. 1986. “Penicillin: 1929–1940.” British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Edition), 293(6540): 158159.Google Scholar
Hublin, J.-J., et al. 2017. “New fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco and the pan-African origin of Homo sapiens.” Nature, 546: 289292.Google Scholar
Hughes-Hallett, A., Mayer, E. K., Marcus, H. J. et al. 2014. “Quantifying innovation in surgery.” Annals of Surgery, 260: 205211. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/SLA.0000000000000662.Google Scholar
Hull, N. E. H. 1991. “Networks & bricolage: A prolegomenon to a history of twentieth-century American academic jurisprudence.” The American Journal of Legal History, 35(3): 307322.Google Scholar
Hutchinson, G. E. (1957). “Concluding remarks.” Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology, 22: 415427.Google Scholar
Jacob, F. 1977. “Evolution and tinkering.” Science, 196: 11611166.Google Scholar
Jacobs, J. 2000. The Nature of Economies. New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
James, W. 1890. The Principles of Psychology, volume 2. New York: Henry Holt and Company.Google Scholar
Jones, C. I. 2001. “Was an industrial revolution inevitable? Economic growth over the very long run.” Advances in Macroeconomics, 1: 143.Google Scholar
Jones, C. I., and Romer, P. M. 2010. “The new Kaldor facts: Ideas, institutions, population, and human capital.” American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics, 2: 224245.Google Scholar
Joy, J. B. 2013. “Symbiosis catalyses niche expansion and diversification.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 280: 20122820.Google Scholar
Kahneman, D. 2003. “Maps of bounded rationality: Psychology for behavioral economics.” American Economic Review, 93(5): 14491475.Google Scholar
Kallis, G., Kostakis, V., Lange, S. et al. 2018. “Research on degrowth.” Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 43: 291316.Google Scholar
Kant, I. 1787 [1934]. Critique of Pure Reason. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co.Google Scholar
Kantorovich, A. 1993. Scientific Discovery: Logic and Tinkering. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Kauffman, S. 1986. “Autocatalytic sets of proteins.” Journal of Theoretical Biology, 119(1): 124.Google Scholar
Kauffman, S. 1988. “The evolution of Economic Webs.” In Anderson, P. W. and Arrow, K. J. (eds.), The Economy as an Evolving Complex System, volume 5. A Proceedings volume in the Santa Fe Institute Studies in the Sciences of Complexity. New York: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Kauffman, S. 1993. The Origins of Order. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kauffman, S. 2000. Investigations. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kauffman, S. 2008. Reinventing the Sacred. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Kauffman, S. 2016. Humanity in a Creative Universe. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kauffman, S. 2019. A World beyond Physics. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kauffman, S., and Roli, A. 2021a. “The world is not a theorem.” Entropy, 23(11): 1467.Google Scholar
Kauffman, S., and Roli, A. 2021b. “The third transition in science: Beyond Newton and quantum mechanics – A statistical mechanics of emergence.” Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Kirzner, I. M. 1973. Competition and Entrepreneurship. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Kirzner, I. M. 1982. “Uncertainty, discovery, and human action: A study of the entrepreneurial profile in the Misesian system.” In Kirzner, I. (ed.), Method, Process and Austrian Economics. New York: Lexington Books, pp. 139161.Google Scholar
Kirzner, I. M. 1997. “Entrepreneurial discovery and the competitive market process: An Austrian approach.” Journal of Economic Literature 35: 6085.Google Scholar
Kline, M. A., and Boyd, R. 2010. “Population size predicts technological complexity in Oceania.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 277: 25592564.Google Scholar
Knorr, K. D. 1979. “Tinkering toward success: Prelude to a theory of scientific practice.” Theory and Society, 8(3): 347376.Google Scholar
Koppl, R. 2018. Expert Failure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Koppl, R. 2021. “Against expertism.” Review of Behavioral Economics, 8: 361377.Google Scholar
Koppl, R., Kauffman, S., Felin, T., and Longo, G. 2015. “Economics for a Creative World.” Journal of Institutional Economics, 11(1): 131.Google Scholar
Koppl, R., and Minniti, M. 2010. “Market processes and entrepreneurial studies.” In Acs, Z. J. and Audretsch, D. B. (eds.), Handbook of Entrepreneurial Research, revised edition. Springer.Google Scholar
Koyama, M., and Rubin, J. 2022. How the World Became Rich: The Historical Origins of Economic Growth. John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Kremer, M. 1993. Population growth and technological change: One million B.C. to 1990. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 108: 681716.Google Scholar
Kropotkin, P. 1902. Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution. New York: McClure Phillips & Co.Google Scholar
Kuhn, S. L. 2016. Comment on “Early evidence for brilliant ritualized display.Current Anthropology, 57(3): 303304.Google Scholar
Law, J. 1705 [1966]. Money and Trade Considered, with a Proposal for Supplying the Nation with Money. New York: Augustus M. Kelley Publishers.Google Scholar
Lax, E. 2005. The Mold in Dr. Florey’s Coat. New York: Henry Holt.Google Scholar
Leader, G. M., Kuman, K., Gibbon, R. J., and Granger, D. E. 2018. “Early Acheulean organised core knapping strategies ca. 1.3 Ma at Rietputs 15, Northern Cape Province, South Africa.” Quaternary International, 480: 1628.Google Scholar
Levi-Strauss, C. 1966. The Savage Mind. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Levine, J. M., and HilleRisLambers, J. 2009. “The importance of niches for the maintenance of species diversity.” Nature, 461(7261): 254257.Google Scholar
Lewis, J. E. and Harmand, S. 2016. “An earlier origin for stone tool making: Implications for cognitive evolution and the transition to Homo,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 371: 20150233.Google Scholar
Lotka, A. J. 1926. “The frequency distribution of scientific productivity.” Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 16: 317323.Google Scholar
Lowery, Y., and Baumol, W. J. 2013. “Rapid invention, slow industrialization, and the absent innovative entrepreneur in medieval China.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 157: 121.Google Scholar
Lucas, R. E. 2009. “Ideas and growth.” Economica, 76: 119.Google Scholar
Maddison Project. n.d. “Maddison Historical Statistics.” www.rug.nl/ggdc/historicaldevelopment/maddison/.Google Scholar
Malanima, P. 2011. “The long decline of a leading economy: GDP in central and northern Italy, 1300–1913.” European Review of Economic History, 15: 169219.Google Scholar
Mandeville, B. 1729 [1924]. The Fable of the Bees: Or, Private Vices, Publick Benefits, with a Commentary Critical, Historical, and Explanatory by F. B. Kaye, in two volumes. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Marwick, B. 2003. “Pleistocene exchange networks as evidence for the evolution of language.” Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 13: 6781.Google Scholar
Marx, K. 1867 [1909]. Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, volume 1. Translated by Samuel Morse and Edward Aveling. Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Company.Google Scholar
Matutinović, I. 2002. “Organizational patterns of economies: An ecological perspective.” Ecological Economics, 40(3): 421440.Google Scholar
Maynard-Smith, J., and Harper, D. 2003. Animal Signals. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
McBrearty, S., and Brooks, A. S. 2000. “The revolution that wasn’t: A new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior.” Journal of Human Evolution, 39: 453563.Google Scholar
McBride, R., and Wuebker, R. 2022. “Social objectivity and entrepreneurial opportunities.” Academy of Management Review, 47(1): 7592.Google Scholar
McCloskey, D. N. 2006. The Bourgeois Virtues: Ethics for an Age of Commerce. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
McCloskey, D. N. 2010. Bourgeois Dignity: Why Economics Can’t Explain the Modern World. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
McCloskey, D. N. 2016. Bourgeois Equality: How Ideas, Not Capital or Institutions, Enriched the World. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
McMullen, J. S., and Shepherd, D. A. 2006. “Entrepreneurial action and the role of uncertainty in the theory of the entrepreneur.” Academy of Management Review, 31(1): 132152.Google Scholar
McPherron, S. P., Alemseged, Z., Marean, C. W. et al. 2010. “Evidence for stone-tool-assisted consumption of animal tissues before 3.39 million years ago at Dikika, Ethiopia.” Nature, 466: 857860.Google Scholar
Melchionna, M. A., Mondonaro, A., Serio, C. et al. 2020. “Macroevolutionary trends of brain mass in primates.” Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 129: 1425.Google Scholar
Menger, C. 1871 [1981]. Principles of Economics. Translated by James Dingwell and Bert F. Hoselitz. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Mesoudi, A., and Thornton, A. 2018. “What is cumulative cultural evolution?Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 285: 20180712.Google Scholar
Meyer, P. N. 2014. “Shaping your legal storytelling: Voice and perspective can affect how the law is applied to the facts of your case.” ABA Journal, 100(10): 2627.Google Scholar
Migliano, A. B., and Vinicius, L. 2021. “The origins of human cumulative culture: From the foraging niche to collective intelligence.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 377: 20200317.Google Scholar
Mises, L. von. 1949. Human Action: A Treatise on Economics. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Mitzenmacher, M. 2003. “A brief history of generative models for power law and lognormal distributions.” Internet Mathematics, 1(2): 226251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mokyr, J. 2005. “Hockey-stick economics: Robert Fogel, ‘The Escape from Hunger and Premature Death, 1700–2100’.Technology and Culture, 46(3): pp. 613617.Google Scholar
Muthukrishna, M., and Henrich, J. 2016. “Innovation in the collective brain.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 371(1690): 20150192. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0192.Google Scholar
Nelson, K., and Nelson, R. R. 2002. “On the nature and evolution of human know-how.” Research Policy, 31: 719733.Google Scholar
Nelson, R. R. 2008. “Bounded rationality, cognitive maps, and trial and error learning.” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 67: 7889.Google Scholar
Nelson, R. R., and Winter, S. G. 1982. An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Nooteboom, B., Van Haverbeke, W., Duysters, G., Gilsing, V., and van den Oord, A. 2007. “Optimal cognitive distance and absorptive capacity.” Research Policy, 36: 10161034.Google Scholar
Norris, K. S. 1993. Dolphin Days: The Life and Times of the Spinner Dolphin. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.Google Scholar
North, D. C., and Weingast, B. R. 1989. “Constitutions and commitment: The evolution of institutions governing public choice in seventeenth-century England.” The Journal of Economic History, 49(4): 803832.Google Scholar
Odling-Smee, F. J., Laland, K. N., and Feldman, M. 1996. “Niche construction.” The American Naturalist, 147(4): 641648.Google Scholar
Odling-Smee, F. J., Laland, K. N., and Feldman, M. 2003. Niche Construction: The Neglected Process in Evolution. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Ogburn, W. F. 1922. Social Change with Respect to Culture and Original Nature. New York: B. W. Huebsch, Inc.Google Scholar
Oswalt, W. H. 1976. An Anthropological Analysis of Food-Getting Technology. New York: Wiley Interscience.Google Scholar
Panger, M. A., Brooks, A. S., Richmond, B. G., and Wood, B. 2002. “Older than Oldowan? Rethinking the emergence of hominin tool use.” Evolutionary Anthropology, 11: 235245.Google Scholar
Pareto, V. 1896. Cours d’Economie Politique Professé a L’université de Lausanne. Lausanne: F. Rouge, Éditeur.Google Scholar
Pearce, E., and Moutsiou, T. 2014. “Using obsidian transfer distances to explore social network maintenance in late Pleistocene hunter–gatherers.” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 36: 1220.Google Scholar
Perreault, C., Brantingham, P. J., Kuhn, S. L., Wurz, S., and Gao, X. 2013. “Measuring the complexity of lithic technology.” Current Anthropology, 54(S8): S397S406.Google Scholar
Petroski, H. 1992. The Evolution of Useful Things. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.Google Scholar
Potts, J. 2000. The New Evolutionary Microeconomics: Complexity, Competence and Adaptive Behaviour. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.Google Scholar
Potts, R. et al. 2018. “Environmental dynamics during the onset of the Middle Stone Age in eastern Africa.” Science, 360(6384): 8690.Google Scholar
Potts, R. et al. 2020. “Increased ecological resource variability during a critical transition in hominin evolution.” Science Advances, 6: eabc8975.Google Scholar
Ramoglou, S. 2021. “Knowable opportunities in an unknowable future? On the epistemological paradoxes of entrepreneurship theory.” Journal of Business Venturing, 36: 106090.Google Scholar
Read, D., and Andersson, C. 2019. “Cultural complexity and complexity evolution.” Adaptive Behavior, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1059712318822298.Google Scholar
Regis, E. 2020. “No one can explain why planes stay in the air.” Scientific American, February 1, 2020. Accessed on February 29, 2020 at www.scientificamerican.com/article/no-one-can-explain-why-planes-stay-in-the-air/.Google Scholar
Richardson, G. B. 1960. Information and Investment: A Study in the Working of the Competitive Economy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Richardson, G. B. 2003. Differentiation and continuity in the market economy. Advances in Austrian Economics, 6: 9399.Google Scholar
Ridley, M. 2020. How Innovation Works: And Why It Flourishes in Freedom. New York: Harper.Google Scholar
Rizzo, M. J., and Whitman, G. 2020. Escaping Paternalism: Rationality, Behavioral Economics, and Public Policy. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Roli, A., and Kauffman, S. A. 2020. “Emergence of organisms.” Entropy, 22: 1163.Google Scholar
Romer, P. 1990. “Endogenous technological change.” Journal of Political Economy, 98(5, part 2): S71S102.Google Scholar
Rubin, P. 2019. The Capitalism Paradox: How Cooperation Enables Free Market Competition. Nashville: Post Hill Press.Google Scholar
Schlebusch, C. M. et al. 2017. “Southern African ancient genomes estimate modern human divergence to 350,000 to 260,000 years ago.” Science, 358: 652655.Google Scholar
Schumpeter, J. A. 1911 [1934]. The Theory of Economic Development. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Schurman, J. G. 1887. The Ethical Import of Darwinism. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.Google Scholar
Shackle, G. L. S. 1979. Imagination and the Nature of Choice. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
Shane, S., and Venkataraman, S. 2000. “The promise of entrepreneurship as a field of research.” Academy of Management Review, 25(1): 217226.Google Scholar
Shea, J. J. 2003. “The Middle Paleolithic of the East Mediterranean Levant.” Journal of World Prehistory, 17(4): 313394.Google Scholar
Shimelmitz, R., and Kuhn, S. L. 2018. “The toolkit in the core: There is more to Levallois production than predetermination.” Quaternary International, 464: 8191.Google Scholar
Shipton, C., and Nielson, M. 2018. “The acquisition of biface knapping skill in the Acheulean.” In Paolo, L. D. Di, F. Di Vincnzo, and Petrillo, F. De (eds.), Evolution of Primate Social Cognition. Springer, pp. 283297.Google Scholar
Silverberg, G., and Verspagen, B. 2005. “A percolation model of innovation in complex technology spaces.” Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 29: 225244.Google Scholar
Simon, H. A. 1955a. “On a class of skew distribution functions.” Biometrika 42(3/4): 425440.Google Scholar
Simon, H. A. 1955b. “A behavioral model of rational choice.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 69(1): 99118.Google Scholar
Singels, E., and Schoville, B. J. 2018. “A stab in the dark: Testing the efficacy of Watsonia exudate as glue for stone tool hafting.” South African Archaeological Bulletin, 73(208): 147153.Google Scholar
Smith, A. [1776] 1981. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund.Google Scholar
Smith, H. N. 2020. “Rock music: The sounds of flintknapping.” MA thesis, Kent State University. Lithic Technology, forthcoming.Google Scholar
Smith, H. N., Perrone, A., Wilson, M. et al. 2021. “Rock music: An auditory assessment of knapping.” Lithic Technology, 46(4): 320335.Google Scholar
Smith, V. 2009. Rationality in Economics: Constructivist and Ecological Forms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Solé, R. V., Armor, D. R., and Valverde, S. 2016. “On singularities and black holes in combination-driven models of technological innovation networks.” PloS One, 11(1): e0146180.Google Scholar
Solé, R. V., Ferrer-Cancho, R., Montoya, J. M., and Valverde, S. 2003. “Selection, tinkering, and emergence in complex networks: Crossing the land of tinkering.” Complexity, 8(1): 2033.Google Scholar
Stark, R. 2005. The Victory of Reason: How Christianity Led to Freedom, Capitalism, and Western Success. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
Steel, M., Hordijk, W., and Kauffman, S. 2020. “Dynamics of a birth-death process based on combinatorial innovation.” Journal of Theoretical Biology, 491: 110187.Google Scholar
Stern, W. 1938. General Psychology from the Personalistic Standpoint. New York: The Macmillan Company.Google Scholar
Strandburg, K. J., Csárdi, G., Tobochnik, J., Érdi, P., and Zalányi, L. 2006. “Law and the science of networks: An overview and an application to the ‘patent explosion.’” Berkley Technology Law Journal, 21(4): 12931362.Google Scholar
Tiger, L., and Fox, R. 1966. “The zoological perspective in social science.” Man, New Series 1(1): 7581.Google Scholar
Timmer, A. 2015. “Judging stereotypes: What the European Court of Human Rights can borrow from American and Canadian equal protection law.” The American Journal of Comparative Law, 63(1): 239284.Google Scholar
Tryon, C. A., McBrearty, S., and Texier, P.-J. 2005. “Levallois lithic technology from the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya: Acheulian origin and Middle Stone Age diversity.” African Archaeological Review, 22(4): 199229.Google Scholar
Tullock, G. 1966 [2005]. The Organization of Inquiry. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, Inc.Google Scholar
Uexküll, J. von. 1934 [2010]. A Foray into the Worlds of Animals and Humans, with a Theory of Meaning. Translated by Joseph D. O’Neil. Minneapolis: University of Minesota Press. Translation of Streifzüge durch die Umwelten von Tieren und Menschen: Ein Bilderbuch unsichtbarer Welten. Berlin and Heidelberg: Springer.Google Scholar
Ulanowicz, R. E. 1997. Ecology, the Ascendent Perspective. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Ulanowicz, R. E. 2009. “The dual nature of ecosystem dynamics.” Ecological Modelling, 220: 18861892.Google Scholar
Unattributed. 1920. “Milestones in the development of the American passenger locomotive.” Scientific American, 123(14): 329n.Google Scholar
Unattributed. 1921. “Past and present of American railroading.” Scientific American, 125(6): 99.Google Scholar
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). 2005. How to Keep Beavers from Plugging Culverts.Google Scholar
Valverde, S. 2016. “Major transitions in information technology.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 371: 20150450.Google Scholar
Valverde, S., Solé, R. V., Bedau, M. A., and Packard, N. 2007. “Topology and evolution of technology innovation networks.” Physical Review E, 76: 056118.Google Scholar
Veblen, T. 1898. “Why is economics not an evolutionary science?The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 12(4): 373397.Google Scholar
Villmoare, B., Kimbel, W. H., Seyoum, C. et al. 2015. “Early Homo at 2.8 Ma from Ledi-Geraru, Afar, Ethiopia.” Science, 347(6228): 13521355.Google Scholar
Wadley, L. 2016. “Technological transformations imply cultural transformations and complex cognition.” In Haidle, M. N., Conard, N. J., and Bolus, M. (eds.), The Nature of Culture: Based on an Interdisciplinary Symposium “The Nature of Culture,” Tübingen, Germany. Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 5763.Google Scholar
Wadley, L. 2021. “What stimulated rapid, cumulative innovation after 100,000 years ago?Journal of Archaeological Method, 28: 120141.Google Scholar
Wadley, L., Williamson, B., and Lombard, M. 2004. “Ochre in hafting in Middle Stone Age southern Africa: A practical role.” Antiquity, 78(301): 661675.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watts, I., Chazan, M., and Wilkins, J. 2016. “Early evidence for brilliant ritualized display.” Current Anthropology, 57(3): 287301.Google Scholar
Weber, M. 1920 [1992]. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Weber, M. 1927 [1981]. General Economic History. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.Google Scholar
Weick, K. E. 1993. “Organizational redesigns as improvisation.” In Huber, G. P. and Glick, W. H. (eds.), Organizational Change and Redesign: Ideas and Insights for Improving Performance. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 346383.Google Scholar
Weitzman, M. L. 1998. “Recombinant growth.” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 68(2): 331360.Google Scholar
Welker, B. H. 2017. The History of Our Tribe: Hominini. Geneseo, NY: Open SUNY Textbooks.Google Scholar
Wilkins, J. 2020. “Archaeological evidence for human social learning and sociality in the Middle Stone Age of South Africa.” In Deane-Drummond, C. and Fuentes, A. (eds.), Theology and Evolutionary Anthropology: Dialogues in Wisdom, Humility, and Grace. New York: Routledge, pp. 119141.Google Scholar
Wilkins, J., Schoville, B. J., Brown, K. S., and Chazan, M. 2012. “Evidence of early hafted hunting technology.” Science 338(6109): 942946.Google Scholar
Williams, H., and Ladhlan, R. F. 2021. “Evidence for cumulative cultural evolution in bird song.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 377: 20200322.Google Scholar
Wilsson, L. 1971. “Observations and experiments on the ethology of the European beaver (Castor fiber L.): A study in the development of phylogenetically adapted behaviour in a highly specialized mammal.” Viltrevy, 8(3): 117261.Google Scholar
Witt, U. 2009. “Propositions about novelty.” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 70: 311320.Google Scholar
Wolpert, D. H. 2008. “Physical limits of inference.” Physica D: Nonlinear Phenomena, 237(9): 12571281.Google Scholar
Wolpert, D. H. 2017. “Constraints on physical reality arising from a formalization of knowledge.” arXiv preprint arXiv:1711.03499.Google Scholar
Wrangham, R., and Carmody, R. 2010. “Human adaptation to the control of fire.” Evolutionary Anthropology, 19: 187199.Google Scholar
Wreschner, E., Bolten, R., Butzer, K. W. et al. 1980. “Red ochre and human evolution: A case for discussion [and comments and reply].” Current Anthropology, 21(5): 621644.Google Scholar
Young, A. A. 1928. “Increasing returns and economic progress.” The Economic Journal, 38(152): 527542.Google Scholar
van Zanden, J. L., and van Leeuwen, B. 2012. “Persistent but not consistent: The growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807.” Explorations in Economic History, 49: 119130.Google Scholar
Zipf, G. 1932. Selective Studies and the Principle of Relative Frequency in Language. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Zipkin, A., Wagner, M., McGrath, K., Brook, A. S., and Lucas, P. W. 2014. “An experimental study of hafting adhesives and the implications for compound tool technology.” PLoS One, 9(11): e112560.Google Scholar

Save element to Kindle

To save this element to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Explaining Technology
Available formats
×

Save element to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Explaining Technology
Available formats
×

Save element to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Explaining Technology
Available formats
×