Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-m6dg7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T14:32:06.224Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Language Ideologies and Identities on Facebook and TikTok

A Southern Caribbean Perspective

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 May 2024

Guyanne Wilson
Affiliation:
University College London

Summary

This monograph examines the ways in which Caribbean content creators use elements of Caribbean Englishes and Creoles in their performances of identity in image macro memes and TikTok videos. It also examines the ideologies that underlie these performances. The data comprises memes from Trinidadian Facebook pages, as well as videos by Guyanese, Barbadian, and Trinidadian TikTokers, and was analysed using the multimodal method designed by Kress. For meme makers, identity is understood as a system of distinction between ingroups and outgroups, and language and other semiotic features, notably emojis, are used to distinguish Trinidadians from other nationalities, and groups of Trinidadians from one another. TikTokers establish their Caribbean identity primarily through knowledge of lexis, but this works in concert with other linguistic features to create authentic identities. Social media content is underpinned by the tension between the acceptance and rejection of standard language ideologies.
Get access
Type
Element
Information
Online ISBN: 9781009350808
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication: 06 June 2024

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agha, A. (2003). The social life of cultural value. Language & Communication, 23(3–4), 231273. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0271-5309(03)00012-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Agha, A. (2005). Voice, footing, enregisterment. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology, 15(1), 3859. https://doi.org/10.1525/jlin.2005.15.1.38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Agha, A. (2007). Language and Social Relations. New York: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511618284.Google Scholar
Alleyne, M. C. (1971). Acculturation and the cultural matrix of creolization. In Hymes, D., ed., Pidginization and Creolization of Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 169186.Google Scholar
Allsopp, J. (2008). Dictionaries of Caribbean English. In Cowie, A. P., ed., The Oxford History of English Lexicography. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 353377.Google Scholar
Allsopp, R. (2003). Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage. Mona: University of the West Indies Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Androutsopoulos, J. (2015). Networked multilingualism: Some language practices on Facebook and their implications. International Journal of Bilingualism, 19(2), 185205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1367006913489198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Androutsopoulos, J. (2017). Online data collection. In Mallinson, C., Childs, B., and Van Herk, G., eds., Data Collection in Sociolinguistics. London: Routledge, 233244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beal, J. C. (2009). Enregisterment, commodification, and historical context: ‘Geordie’ versus ‘Sheffieldish’. American Speech, 84(2), 138156. https://doi.org/10.1215/00031283-2009-012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Behnken, B. D. and Smithers, G. D. (2015). Racism in American Popular Media: From Aunt Jemima to the Frito Bandito. Santa Barbara, CA: Bloomsbury Publishing USA.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beninger, K. (2016). Social media users’ views on the ethics of social media research. In Sloan, L. and Quan-Haase, A., eds., The SAGE Handbook of Social Media Research Methods. London: SAGE Publications, 5773. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473983847.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bhatia, A. (2020). Vlogging and the discursive co-construction of ethnicity and beauty. World Englishes, 39(1), 721. https://doi.org/10.1111/weng.12442CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bickerton, D. (1975). Dynamics of a Creole System. London: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Blake, R. (1997). All o’we is one? Race, class, and language in a Barbados community. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Stanford University.Google Scholar
Blake, R. (2008). Bajan: Phonology. In Schneider, E., ed., Varieties of English, Vol. 2: The Americas and the Caribbean. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, 312319. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110208405.1.312.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bohmann, A. (2016). ‘Nobody canna cross it’: Language-ideological dimensions of hypercorrect speech in Jamaica. English Language & Linguistics, 20 (1), 129152. https://doi:10.1017/S1360674315000374.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brereton, B. (2010). The historical background to the culture of violence in Trinidad Tobago. Caribbean Review of Gender studies, 4, 115.Google Scholar
Brown, D. C. (2009). Parang side coming: The ‘color’ and ‘sound’ of Trinidad’s ‘Spanish’ heritage. Unpublished PhD dissertation, New York University.Google Scholar
Bucholtz, M. and Hall, K. (2005). Identity and interaction: A sociocultural linguistic approach. Discourse Studies, 7(4–5), 585614. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461445605054407.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calder, J. (2019). From sissy to sickening: The indexical landscape of /s/ in SoMa, San Francisco. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology, 29(3), 332358. https://doi.org/10.1111/jola.12218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, C. C. (1983). Education and black consciousness: The Amazing Captain J. O. Cutteridge in Trinidad and Tobago, 1921–42. The Journal of Caribbean History, 18(1), 3566.Google Scholar
Cape, R. and Stewart, D. (2009). Tusty. On Soca Gold 2009. Port of Spain: VP Records.Google Scholar
Carrington, L. D. (1999). The status of Creole in the Caribbean. Caribbean Quarterly, 45(2–3), 4151. https://doi.org/10.1080/00086495.1999.11829615.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cassidy, F. G., and Le Page, R. B. (Robert B. [1967] 2002. Dictionary of Jamaican English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Cathala, X., Ocho, O. N., Mcintosh, N., Watts, P. N., and Moorley, C. (2022). An exploration of social participation in Caribbean student nurses’ use of social media in their learning journey. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 79(8), 29002910. https://doi.org/10.1111/jan.15499.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chau, D. (2021). Spreading language ideologies through social media: Enregistering the ‘fake ABC’ variety in Hong Kong. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 25(4), 596616. https://doi.org/10.1111/josl.12486.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collister, L. B. (2011). *-repair in online discourse. Journal of Pragmatics, 43(3), 918921. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2010.09.025.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coupland, N. (2007). Style: Language Variation and Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511755064.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cutteridge, J. (2014). Nelson’s West Indian Readers First Primer, Vol. 1. London: Nelson Thornes.Google Scholar
DeCamp, D. (1971). Toward a generative analysis of a post-creole speech continuum. In Hymes, D., ed., Pidginization and Creolization of Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 347370.Google Scholar
Denisova, A. (2019). Internet Memes and Society: Social, Cultural, and Political Contexts. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429469404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deuber, D. (2009). Standard English in the secondary school in Trinidad. In Hoffman, T. and Siebers, L., eds., World Englishes – Problems, Properties and Prospects: Selected Papers from the 13th IAWE Conference. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 83104. https://doi.org/10.1075/veaw.g40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deuber, D., Hänsel, E. C., and Westphal, M. (2021). Quotative be like in Trinidadian English. World Englishes, 40(3), 436458. https://doi.org/10.1111/weng.12465.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deuber, D. and Leung, G. A. (2013). Investigating attitudes towards an emerging standard of English: Evaluations of newscasters’ accents in Trinidad. Multilingua – Journal of Cross-Cultural and Interlanguage Communication, 32(3), 289319. https://doi.org/10.1515/multi-2013-0014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deumert, A. (2014). Sociolinguistics and Mobile Communication. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780748655755.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Devonish, H. and Thomas, E. A. (2012). Standards of English in the Caribbean. In Hickey, R., ed., Standards of English: Codified Varieties around the World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 179197. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139023832.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durham, M. (2016). Changing attitudes towards the Welsh English accent: A view from Twitter. In Durham, M. and Morris, J., eds., Sociolinguistics in Wales. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 181205. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-52897-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eckert, P. (2008). Variation and the indexical field. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 12(4), 453476.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ehrlich, A. S. (1971). History, ecology, and demography in the British Caribbean: An analysis of East Indian ethnicity. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 27(2), 166180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Esposito, E. (2018). The social media campaign for Caribbean reparations: A critical multimodal investigation. In Esposito, E., Pérez-Arredondo, C., and Ferreiro, J. M., eds., Discourses from Latin America and the Caribbean: Current Concepts and Challenges. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 175209. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93623-9.Google Scholar
Felix, J. J. (2020). Culture jamming in the Caribbean: A case of alternative media through double alternativity in Trinidad and Tobago. Archipelagos: A Journal of Caribbean Digital Praxis, (5). https://doi.org/10.7916/archipelagos-fx7k-bj27.Google Scholar
Fenigsen, J. (2003). Language ideologies in Barbados: Processes and paradigms. Pragmatics: Quarterly Publication of the International Pragmatics Association (IPrA), 13(4), 457481.Google Scholar
Ferreira, J.-A. and Heitmeier, K.-A. (2015). ‘A description of Trinidadian pronunciation.’ Society for Caribbean Linguistics Occasional Paper No. 42.Google Scholar
Francisco, S. (1963). Dan is the man in the van. On Harry and Mama/Dan is the Man in the Van. Jamaica: West Indian Record Label.Google Scholar
Goffman, E. (1979). Footing. Semiotica, 25(1–2), 130. https://doi.org/10.1515/semi.1979.25.1-2.1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gooden, S. and Drayton, K. A. (2017). The Caribbean. In Hickey, R., ed., Listening to the Past: Audio Records of Accents of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 414443.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hackert, S. (2016). Standards of English in the Caribbean. In Seoane, E. and Suárez-Gómez, C., eds., World Englishes: New Theoretical and Methodological Considerations. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 85111. https://doi.org/10.1075/veaw.g57.Google Scholar
Hackert, S. and Deuber, D. (2015). American influence on written Caribbean English. In Collins, P., ed., Grammatical Change in English World-Wide, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 389410. https://doi.org/10.1075/scl.67.Google Scholar
Hänsel, E. C. and Meer, P. (2023). Comparing attitudes toward Caribbean, British, and American accents in Trinidad and Tobago, the United Kingdom, and the United States. World Englishes, 42(1), 130149. https://doi.org/10.1111/weng.12618.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hänsel, E. C., Westphal, M., Meer, P., and Deuber, D. (2022). Context matters: Grenadian students’ attitudes toward newscasters’ and teachers’ accents. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages, 37(1), 1652. https://doi.org/10.1075/jpcl.00085.han.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haynes, L. (1982). Rural and urban groups in Barbados and Guyana: Language attitudes and behaviors. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 1982(34), 6782. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijsl.1982.34.67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hinrichs, L. and White-Sustaíta, J. (2011). Global Englishes and the sociolinguistics of spelling: A study of Jamaican blog and email writing. English World-Wide, 32(1), 4673. https://doi.org/10.1075/eww.32.1.03hin.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holm, J. (1986). The spread of English in the Caribbean area. In Görlach, M. and Holm, J., eds., Focus on the Caribbean. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 122. https://doi.org/10.1075/veaw.g8.Google Scholar
Honkanen, M. (2020). World Englishes on the Web: The Nigerian Diaspora in the USA. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/veaw.g63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Honkanen, M. and Müller, J. (2021). Interjections and emojis in Nigerian online communication. World Englishes, 40(4), 611630. https://doi.org/10.1111/weng.12544.Google Scholar
Ilbury, C. (2023). The recontextualisation of Multicultural London English: Stylising the ‘roadman’. Language in Society, 125. https://doi:10.1017/S0047404523000143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ilona, A. (2005). ‘Laughing through the tears’: Mockery and self-representation in VS Naipaul’s A House for Mr Biswas and Earl Lovelace’s The Dragon Can’t Dance. In Reichl, S. and Stein, M., eds., Cheeky Fictions. Leiden: Brill, 4360.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Irvine-Sobers, G. A. (2018). The Acrolect in Jamaica: The Architecture of Phonological Variation. Berlin: Language Science Press. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1306618.Google Scholar
James, W. and Youssef, V. (2008). The creoles of Trinidad and Tobago: Morphology and syntax. In Schneider, E., eds., Varieties of English, Vol. 2: The Americas and the Caribbean. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, 661692. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110208405.2.661.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnstone, B. (2013). Speaking Pittsburghese: The Story of a Dialect. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnstone, B. (2017). Characterological figures and expressive style in the enregisterment of linguistic variety. In Montgomery, C. and Moore, E., eds., Language and a Sense of Place: Studies in Language and Region. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 283300. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316162477.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnstone, B. and Kiesling, S. F. (2008). Indexicality and experience: Exploring the meanings of /aw/-monophthongization in Pittsburgh. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 12, 533. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9841.2008.00351.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, J. M. and Liverpool, H. V. (1976). Calypso humour in Trinidad. In Chapman, A. J. and Foot, H. C, eds., Humor and Laughter: Theory, Research, and Applications. London: Routledge, 259286.Google Scholar
Jovanovic, D. and Van Leeuwen, T. (2018). Multimodal dialogue on social media. Social Semiotics, 28(5), 683699. https://doi.org/10.1080/10350330.2018.1504732.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kathpalia, S. S. (2023). Satiric parody through Indian English tweets in Twitter. World Englishes, 42, 606623. https://doi.org/10.1111/weng.12579.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kerrigan, D. (2016). Languaculture and grassroots football: ‘Small goal’ in Trinidad. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 51(6), 735751. https://doi.org/10.1177/1012690214552431.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kress, G. R. (2010). Multimodality: A Social Semiotic Approach to Contemporary Communication. London: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Labov, W. (1972). Sociolinguistic Patterns. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Lacoste, V. (2013). The Caribbean. In Filppula, M., Klemola, J., and Sharma, D., eds., The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Oxford: Oxford Handbooks, 389408. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199777716.013.39.Google Scholar
Le Page, R. B. and Tabouret-Keller, A. (1985). Acts of Identity: Creole-Based Approaches to Language and Ethnicity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Leung, G. A. (2013). A synchronic sociophonetic study of monophthongs in Trinidadian English. PhD dissertation, University of Freiburg.Google Scholar
Leung, G. A. (2017). YouTube comments as metalanguage data on non-standardized languages: The case of Trinidadian Creole English in soca music. In Hai-Jew, S, ed., Data Analytics in Digital Humanities: Multimedia Systems and Applications. New York: Springer, 231250. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-54499-1_10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leung, G. A. and Deuber, D. (2014). Indo-Trinidadian speech: An investigation into a popular stereotype surrounding pitch. In Hundt, M. and Sharma, D., eds., English in the Indian Diaspora. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 927. https://doi.org/10.1075/veaw.g50.Google Scholar
Liverpool, H. (1996). National unity. YouTube video. Posted July 26, 2008. www.youtube.com/watch?v=dksgypdvsoQ. Last accessed 17 January 2024.Google Scholar
Mahabir, C. (1996). Wit and popular music: The calypso and the blues. Popular Music, 15(1), 5581. https://10.1017/S0261143000007960.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mair, C. (2013). The world system of Englishes: Accounting for the transnational importance of mobile and mediated vernaculars. English World-Wide, 34(3), 253278. https://doi.org/10.1075/eww.34.3.01mai.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maynard, D. M. B. and Jules, M. A. (2021). Exploring her roots: Black Caribbean hair identity and going natural using social media networks. Journal of Black Psychology, 47(1), 330. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798420971892.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McMillan, M. (2016). Saga bwoys and rude bwoys: Migration, grooming, and dandyism. Journal of Contemporary African Art, 2016(38–39), 6069. https://doi.org/10.1215/10757163-3641689.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meer, P. and Fuchs, R. (2022). The Trini sing-song: Sociophonetic variation in Trinidadian English prosody and differences to other varieties. Language and Speech, 65(4), 923957. https://doi.org/10.1177/0023830921998404.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meer, P., Westphal, M., Hänsel, E. C., and Deuber, D. (2019). Trinidadian secondary school students’ attitudes toward accents of Standard English. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages, 34(1), 83125. https://doi.org/10.1075/jpcl.00029.mee.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, D. and Sinanan, J. (2017). Visualising Facebook: A Comparative Perspective. London: UCL Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mohammed, S. N. and Thombre, A. (2017). An investigation of user comments on Facebook pages of Trinidad and Tobago’s Indian music format radio stations. Journal of Radio & Audio Media, 24(1), 111129. https://doi.org/10.1080/19376529.2016.1252374.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moll, A. (2015). Jamaican Creole Goes Web. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/cll.49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mortensen, M. and Neumayer, C. (2021). The playful politics of memes. Information, Communication & Society, 24(16), 23672377. https://10.1080/1369118X.2021.1979622.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mühleisen, S. (2001). Is ‘bad English’ dying out? A diachronic comparative study of attitudes towards Creole versus Standard English in Trinidad. Philologie im Netz, 2001(15), 4378.Google Scholar
Mühleisen, S. (2022). Genre in World Englishes: Case Studies from the Caribbean. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/veaw.g67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rickford, J. R. (1987). Dimensions of a Creole Continuum: History, Texts, and Linguistic Analysis of Guyanese Creole. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Saraceni, M. (2017). World Englishes and linguistic border crossings. In Low, E. Ling and Pakir, A., eds., World Englishes: Rethinking Paradigms. London: Routledge, 154171.Google Scholar
Schneider, E. W. (2007). Postcolonial English: Varieties around the world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511618901.Google Scholar
Schneider, E. W. (2016). World Englishes on YouTube. In Seoane, E. and Suárez-Gómez, C., eds., World Englishes: New Theoretical and Methodological Considerations, Amsterdam: John Benjamins: 253282.Google Scholar
Shakir, M. (2023). Functions of code-switching in online registers of Pakistani English. In Wilson, G. and Westphal, M., eds., New Englishes, New Methods, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 4264. https://doi.org/10.1075/veaw.g68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaw, C., Stuart, J., Thomas, T., and Kolves, K. (2022). Suicidal behaviour and ideation in Guyana: A systematic literature review. The Lancet Regional Health–Americas, (11), 211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lana.2022.100253.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shifman, L. (2014). The cultural logic of photo-based meme genres. Journal of Visual Culture, 13(3), 340358. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470412914546577.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sidnell, J. (1999). Gender and pronominal variation in an Indo-Guyanese creole-speaking community. Language in Society, 28(3), 367399. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404599003036.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silverstein, M. (2003). Indexical order and the dialectics of sociolinguistic life. Language & Communication, 23(3–4), 193229. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0271-5309(03)00013-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sinanan, J. (2017). Social Media in Trinidad: Values and Visibility. London: UCL Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singh, K. (2023). ‘I know the world by how I speak the world’: TikTok ABCs, disaster language and Andre Salkey’s Hurricane. Archipelagos: A Journal of Caribbean Digital Praxis, (7), 120. https://10.7916/archipelagos-0704.Google Scholar
Smith, T. and Short, A. (2022). Needs affordance as a key factor in likelihood of problematic social media use: Validation, latent profile analysis and comparison of TikTok and Facebook problematic use measures. Addictive Behaviors, 129, 111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2022.107259.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spilioti, T. (2020). The weirding of English, trans-scripting, and humour in digital communication. World Englishes, 39(1), 106118. https://doi.org/10.1111/weng.12450.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stell, G. (2018). Representing variation in creole continua: A folk linguistic view of language variation in Trinidad. Journal of English Linguistics, 46(2), 113139. https://doi.org/10.1177/0075424218769724.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stuka, C. (2023). The Americanization of Barbadian English. World Englishes, 42(1), 91114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Unuabonah, F. O. and Oyebode, O. O. (2021). ‘Nigeria is fighting Covid-419’: A multimodal critical discourse analysis of political protest in Nigerian coronavirus-related internet memes. Discourse & Communication, 15(2), 200219. https://doi.org/10.1177/1750481320982090.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Leeuwen, T. and Kress, G. (1995). Critical layout analysis. Internationale Schulbuchforschung, 17(1), 2543.Google Scholar
Wainwright, L. (2022). A new paradigm, moving on from Bakhtin. Journal of Festival Culture Inquiry and Analysis, 1(1), 2832.Google Scholar
Wiggins, B. E. (2019). The Discursive Power of Memes in Digital Culture: Ideology, Semiotics, and Intertextuality. New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, G. (2023). British and American norms in the Trinidadian English lexicon. World Englishes, 42(1), 7390. https://doi.org/10.1111/weng.12609.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, M. (2023). The value of ethnographic research for sustainable diet interventions: Connecting old and new foodways in Trinidad. Sustainability, 15(6), 5383. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15065383.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winer, L. (2009). Dictionary of the English/Creole of Trinidad and Tobago: On Historical Principles. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winer, L. (1993). Trinidad and Tobago. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/veaw.t6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winford, D. (1976). Teacher attitudes toward language varieties in a creole community. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 1976(8), 4576. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijsl.1976.8.45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winford, D. (1978). Phonological hypercorrection in the process of decreolization: The case of Trinidadian English. Journal of Linguistics, 14(2), 277291.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winford, D. (1997). Re‐examining Caribbean English creole continua. World Englishes, 16(2), 233279.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Youssef, V. (2004). ‘Is English we speaking’: Trinbagonian in the twenty-first century. English Today, 20(4), 4249. https://10.1017/S0266078404004080.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Youssef, V. and James, W. (2008). The creoles of Trinidad and Tobago: Phonology. In Kortmann, B. and Schneider, E., eds.,Varieties of English, Vol. 2: The Americas and the Caribbean. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, 320338. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110208405.1.320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yus, F. (2018). Identity-related issues in meme communication. Internet Pragmatics, 1(1), 113133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zähres, F. (2021). Broadcasting your variety. In Schroeder, A., ed., The Dynamics of English in Namibia: Perspectives on an Emerging Variety. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 135168. https://doi.org/10.1075/veaw.g65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zappavigna, M. (2011). Ambient affiliation: A linguistic perspective on Twitter. New Media & Society, 13(5), 788806. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444810385097.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save element to Kindle

To save this element to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Language Ideologies and Identities on Facebook and TikTok
  • Guyanne Wilson, University College London
  • Online ISBN: 9781009350808
Available formats
×

Save element to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Language Ideologies and Identities on Facebook and TikTok
  • Guyanne Wilson, University College London
  • Online ISBN: 9781009350808
Available formats
×

Save element to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Language Ideologies and Identities on Facebook and TikTok
  • Guyanne Wilson, University College London
  • Online ISBN: 9781009350808
Available formats
×