Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-ndw9j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-08T22:01:02.082Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Learning from Video Games (and Everything Else)

The General Learning Model

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 December 2021

Douglas A. Gentile
Affiliation:
Iowa State University
J. Ronald Gentile
Affiliation:
State University of New York, Buffalo

Summary

Video games can have many effects on players, some of which could be intentional effects (e.g., games designed to train health compliance behaviors), and most of which are unintentional (e.g., violent games, stereotypes, gaming disorder). Some of these areas of research have been seen as controversial, but many of the controversies can be at least partially resolved by considering the learning mechanisms underlying the effects. We describe the General Learning Model in greater detail than has been provided elsewhere, including short-term and long-term mechanisms, processes of learning and forgetting, and moderators of learning. Video games use many of the best practices to train for both mastery and for transfer of learning. The implications for re-interpreting the literature on violent video games and gaming disorder, as well as for applied social psychology broadly defined, are discussed.
Get access
Type
Element
Information
Online ISBN: 9781108966511
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication: 23 December 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ahmad, F. (2006). British Muslim perceptions and opinions on news coverage of September 11. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 32(6), 961982. http://doi.org/10.1080/13691830600761479.Google Scholar
American Academy of Pediatrics, American Psychological Association, American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, & American Medical Association. (2000). Joint statement on the impact of entertainment violence on children. Retrieved from www.aap.org/advocacy/releases/jstmtevc.htm; www.aacap.org/press_releases/2000/0726.htm.Google Scholar
American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Communications and Media. (2009). Media violence. Pediatrics, 124, 14951503.Google Scholar
American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Public Education. (2001). Media violence. Pediatrics, 108, 12221225.Google Scholar
Amsel, A. (1962). Frustrative nonreward in partial reinforcement and discrimination learning: Some recent history and a theoretical extension. Psychological Review, 69(4), 306328. http://doi.org/10.1037/h0046200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, C. A. (2004). An update on the effects of playing violent video games. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 113122.Google Scholar
Anderson, C. A., Berkowitz, L., Donnerstein, E., Huesmann, L. R., Johnson, J. D., Linz, D., … Wartella, E. (2003). The influence of media violence on youth. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4, 81110.Google Scholar
Anderson, C. A. & Bushman, B. J. (2001). Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: A meta-analytic review of the scientific literature. Psychological Science, 12, 353359.Google Scholar
Anderson, C. A. & Bushman, B. J. (2002a). The effects of media violence on society. Science, 295, 23772379.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, C. A. & Bushman, B. J. (2002b). The general aggression model: An integrated social-cognitive model of human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 2751.Google Scholar
Anderson, C. A. & Bushman, B. J. (2002c). Human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 2751.Google Scholar
Anderson, C. A., Bushman, B. J., Bartholow, B. D., Cantor, J., Christakis, D., Coyne, S. M., … Ybarra, M. (2017). Screen violence and youth behavior. Pediatrics, 140(Supplement 2), S142S147. http://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-1758t.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, C. A., Bushman, B. J., Donnerstein, E., Hummer, T. A., & Warburton, W. (2014). SPSSI research summary on media violence. Retrieved from www.spssi.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=page.viewPage&pageID=1899&nodeID=1.Google Scholar
Anderson, C. A., Carnagey, N. L., Flanagan, M., Benjamin, A. J. J., Eubanks, J., & Valentine, J. C. (2004). Violent video games: Specific effects of violent content on aggressive thoughts and behavior. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 199249.Google Scholar
Anderson, C. A., Deuser, W. E., & DeNeve, K. M. (1995). Hot temperatures, hostile affect, hostile cognition, and arousal: Tests of a general model of affective aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21(5), 434448.Google Scholar
Anderson, C. A. & Dill, K. (2000). Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(4), 772790. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.78.4.772.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, C. A., Gentile, D. A., & Buckley, K. E. (2007). Violent video game effects on children and adolescents: Theory, research, and public policy. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, C. A., Gentile, D. A., & Dill, K. E. (2012). Prosocial, antisocial, and other effects of recreational video games. In Singer, D. G. & Singer, J. L. (eds.), Handbook of children and the media (2nd ed., pp. 249272). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Anderson, C. A., Shibuya, A., Ihori, N., Swing, E. L., Bushman, B. J., Sakamoto, A., … Saleem, M. (2010). Violent video game effects on aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior in eastern and western countries: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 136(2), 151173. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0018251.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, J. R. (1982). Acquisition of cognitive skill. Psychological Review, 89(4), 369.Google Scholar
APA Committee on Violence in Video Games and Interactive Media. (2005). APA calls for reduction of violence in interactive media used by children and adolescents. Retrieved from www.craiganderson.org/wp-content/uploads/caa/VGVpolicyDocs/05APA.pdf.Google Scholar
APA Task Force on Violent Media. (2015). Technical report on the review of the violent video game literature. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Ash, E. (2016). Priming or Proteus effect? Examining the effects of avatar race on in-game behavior and post-play aggressive cognition and affect in video games. Games and Culture, 11(4), 422440. http://doi.org/10.1177/1555412014568870.Google Scholar
Aslin, R. N. & Newport, E. L. (2012). Statistical learning: From acquiring specific items to forming general rules. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21(3), 170176.Google Scholar
Baehre, M. R. & Gentile, J. R. (1991). Cumulative effects of the keyword mnemonic and distributed practice in learning social studies facts: A classroom evaluation. Journal of Research in Education, 1(1), 7078.Google Scholar
Bahrick, H. P. (1984). Semantic memory content in permastore: Fifty years of memory for Spanish learned in school. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 113(1), 1.Google ScholarPubMed
Bailey, K., West, R., & Anderson, C. A. (2010). A negative association between video game experience and proactive cognitive control. Psychophysiology, 47, 3442. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2009.00925.x.Google Scholar
Bandura, A. (1965). Influence of models’ reinforcement contingencies on the acquisition of imitative responses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1(6), 589595.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Bandura, A. & Kupers, C. J. (1964). Transmission of patterns of self-reinforcement through modeling. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 69(1), 19. http://doi.org/10.1037/h0041187.Google Scholar
Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963). Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66, 311.Google Scholar
Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Barlett, N. D., Gentile, D. A., Barlett, C. P., Eisenmann, J. C., & Walsh, D. A. (2012). Sleep as a mediator of screen time effects on American children’s health outcomes: A prospective study. Journal of Children and Media, 6, 3750.Google Scholar
Barnett, S. M. & Ceci, S. J. (2002). When and where do we apply what we learn? A taxonomy for far transfer. Psychological Bulletin, 128(4), 612.Google Scholar
Bean, A. M., Nielsen, R. K., Van Rooij, A. J., & Ferguson, C. J. (2017). Video game addiction: The push to pathologize video games. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 48(5), 378.Google Scholar
Bègue, L., Sarda, E., Gentile, D. A., Bry, C., & Roché, S. (2017). Video games exposure and sexism in a representative sample of adolescents. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 466. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00466.Google Scholar
Behm-Morawitz, E. & Ta, D. (2014). Cultivating virtual stereotypes? The impact of video game play on racial/ethnic stereotypes. Howard Journal of Communications, 25(1), 115. http://doi.org/10.1080/10646175.2013.835600.Google Scholar
Bender, P. K. & Gentile, D. A. (2020). Internet gaming disorder: Relations between needs satisfaction in-game and in life in general. Psychology of Popular Media, 9(2), 266278. http://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000227.Google Scholar
Bloom, B. S. (1986). Automaticity: “The hands and feet of genius.Educational Leadership, 43(5), 7077.Google Scholar
Bloom, K. C. & Shuell, T. J. (1981). Effects of massed and distributed practice on the learning and retention of second-language vocabulary. The Journal of Educational Research, 74(4), 245248.Google Scholar
Böhm, T., Ruth, N., & Schramm, H. (2016). “Count on me” – the influence of music with prosocial lyrics on cognitive and affective aggression. Psychomusicology: Music, Mind, and Brain, 26(3), 279283. http://doi.org/10.1037/pmu0000155.Google Scholar
Boot, W., Blakely, D., & Simons, D. (2011). Do action video games improve perception and cognition? Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 226. Retrieved from www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00226.Google Scholar
Boulton, M. J. (2012). Children’s hostile attribution bias is reduced after watching realistic playful fighting, and the effect is mediated by prosocial thoughts. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 113(1), 3648. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2012.02.011.Google Scholar
Bowen, E., Walker, K., Mawer, M., Holdsworth, E., Sorbring, E., Helsing, B., … Jans, S. (2014). “It’s like you’re actually playing as yourself”: Development and preliminary evaluation of “Green Acres High,” a serious game-based primary intervention to combat adolescent dating violence+. Psychosocial Intervention, 23(1), 4355. http://doi.org/10.5093/in2014a5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bower, G. H. & Hilgard, E. R. (1981). Theories of learning: Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). How people learn (Vol. 11). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.Google Scholar
Bregman, E. O. (1934). An attempt to modify the emotional attitudes of infants by the conditioned response technique. The Pedagogical Seminary and Journal of Genetic Psychology, 45, 169198. http://doi.org/10.1080/08856559.1934.10534254.Google Scholar
Bridger, W. H. (1961). Sensory habituation and discrimination in the human neonate. American Journal of Psychiatry, 117(11), 991996. http://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.117.11.991.Google Scholar
Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 3242.Google Scholar
Brown, R. & Kulik, J. (1977). Flashbulb memories. Cognition, 5(1), 7399.Google Scholar
Bruer, J. T. (1997). Education and the brain: A bridge too far. Educational Researcher, 26(8), 416. http://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x026008004.Google Scholar
Buckley, K. E. & Anderson, C. A. (2006). A theoretical model of the effects and consequences of playing video games. In Vorderer, P. & Bryant, J. (eds.), Playing video games – Motives, responses, and consequences (pp. 363378). Mahwah, NJ: LEA.Google Scholar
Bugelski, B. R. (1979). Principles of learning and memory. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Burgess, M. C. R., Dill, K. E., Stermer, S. P., Burgess, S. R., & Brown, B. P. (2011). Playing with prejudice: The prevalence and consequences of racial stereotypes in video games. Media Psychology, 14(3), 289311. http://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2011.596467.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Busching, R. & Krahé, B. (2013). Charging neutral cues with aggressive meaning through violent video game play. Societies, 3(4), 445456. http://doi.org/10.3390/soc3040445.Google Scholar
Bushman, B. J. & Huesmann, L. R. (2006). Short-term and long-term effects of violent media on aggression in children and adults. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 160(4), 348352. Retrieved from http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/160/4/348.Google Scholar
Cahill, L., Haier, R. J., Fallon, J., Alkire, M. T., Tang, C., Keator, D., … McGaugh, J. L. (1996). Amygdala activity at encoding correlated with long-term, free recall of emotional information. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 93(15), 80168021. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.93.15.8016.Google Scholar
Cain, L. F. & Willey, R. D. V. (1939). The effect of spaced learning on the curve of retention. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 25(2), 209.Google Scholar
Cairney, S. A., Durrant, S. J., Musgrove, H., & Lewis, P. A. (2011). Sleep and environmental context: Interactive effects for memory. Experimental Brain Research, 214(1), 83.Google Scholar
Calvert, S. L., Appelbaum, M., Dodge, K. A., Graham, S., Nagayama Hall, G. C., Hamby, S., … Hedges, L. V. (2017). The American Psychological Association Task Force assessment of violent video games: Science in the service of public interest. American Psychologist, 72(2), 126143. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0040413.Google Scholar
Carpenter, S. K. (2017). Spacing effects on learning and memory. In Byrne, J. H. (ed.), Learning and memory: A comprehensive reference (Vol. 2, pp. 465485). Oxford, UK: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Carpenter, S. K. & Geller, J. (2020). Is a picture really worth a thousand words? Evaluating contributions of fluency and analytic processing in metacognitive judgements for pictures in foreign language vocabulary learning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 73(2), 211224.Google Scholar
Carpenter, S. K., Witherby, A. E., & Tauber, S. K. (2020). On students’ (mis)judgments of learning and teaching effectiveness: Where we stand and how to move forward. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 9(2), 181185. http://doi.org/10.1016/J.JARMAC.2020.04.003.Google Scholar
Ceci, S. J., DeSimone Leichtman, M., Putnick, M., & Nightingale, N. N. (1993). The suggestibility of children’s recollections. In Cicchetti, D. & Toth, S. (eds.), Child abuse, child development, and social policy (pp. 117137). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Chall, J. S. & Jacobs, V. A. (2003). The classic study on poor children’s fourth-grade slump. American Educator, 27(1), 1415.Google Scholar
Challis, B. H., Velichkovsky, B. M., & Craik, F. I. M. (1996). Levels-of-processing effects on a variety of memory tasks: New findings and theoretical implications. Consciousness and Cognition, 5(1–2), 142164. http://doi.org/10.1006/ccog.1996.0009.Google Scholar
Chang, J. H. & Bushman, B. J. (2019). Effect of exposure to gun violence in video games on children’s dangerous behavior with real guns. JAMA Network Open, 2(5), e194319. http://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.4319.Google Scholar
Charness, N. (1976). Memory for chess positions: Resistance to interference. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 2(6), 641.Google Scholar
Chase, W. G. & Ericsson, K. A. (1981). Skilled memory. In John R. Anderson (ed.), Cognitive skills and their acquisition (pp. 141189). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Chase, W. G. & Simon, H. A. (1973). Perception in chess. Cognitive Psychology, 4(1), 5581.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colombo, J. & Mitchell, D. W. (2009). Infant visual habituation. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 92(2), 225234. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2008.06.002.Google Scholar
Committee on the Judiciary. (1994). Implementation of the Television Program Improvement Act of 1990: Joint Hearings Before the Subcommittee on the Constitution and the Subcommittee on Juvenile Justice of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, One Hundred Third Congress, First Session … May 21 and June 8, 1993. (J-103–13). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Comstock, G. & Scharrer, E. (2003). Meta-analyzing the controversy over television violence and aggression. In Gentile, D. A. (ed.), Media violence and children: A complete guide for parents and professionals (pp. 205226). Westport, CT: Praeger.Google Scholar
Comstock, G. A. & Rubenstein, E. A. (1972). Television and social behavior; Reports and Papers, Volume III. Television and Adolescent Aggressiveness. https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/television-and-social-behavior-reports-and-papers-volume-iii.Google Scholar
Coyne, S. M., Stockdale, L. A., Warburton, W., Gentile, D. A., Yang, C., & Merrill, B. M. (2020). Pathological video game symptoms from adolescence to emerging adulthood: A 6-year longitudinal study of trajectories, predictors, and outcomes. Developmental Psychology, Advance Online Publication, 56(7), 13851396. http://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000939.Google Scholar
Craik, F. I. & Tulving, E. (1975). Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104(3), 268.Google Scholar
Cutrell, E., Czerwinski, M., & Horvitz, E. (2001). Notification, disruption, and memory: Effects of messaging interruptions on memory and performance. Paper presented at the Human-Computer Interaction – INTERACT’01, Tokyo.Google Scholar
Decker, J. H., Otto, A. R., Daw, N. D., & Hartley, C. A. (2016). From creatures of habit to goal-directed learners: Tracking the developmental emergence of model-based reinforcement learning. Psychological Science, 27(6), 848858.Google Scholar
DeGroot, A. D. (1965). Thought and mind in chess. The Hague: Mouton (1).Google Scholar
Devilly, G. J., Callahan, P., & Armitage, G. (2012). The effect of violent videogame playtime on anger. Australian Psychologist, 47(2), 98107. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1742-9544.2010.00008.x.Google Scholar
Dill, K. E., Gentile, D. A., Richter, W. A., & Dill, J. C. (2005). Violence, sex, race, and age in popular video games: A content analysis. In Cole, E. & Daniel, J. H. (eds.), Featuring females: Feminist analyses of media (pp. 115130). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donnerstein, E., Slaby, R. G., & Eron, L. D. (1994). The mass media and youth aggression. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Downs, E. & Smith, S. L. (2010). Keeping abreast of hypersexuality: A video game character content analysis. Sex Roles, 62(11–12), 721733. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9637-1.Google Scholar
Drummond, A., Sauer, J. D., & Ferguson, C. J. (2020). Do longitudinal studies support long-term relationships between aggressive game play and youth aggressive behaviour? A meta-analytic examination. Royal Society Open Science, 7. http://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.200373.Google Scholar
Dudai, Y. (2004). Memory from A to Z: Keywords, concepts, and beyond. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Dweck, C. S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41(10), 10401048. http://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.41.10.1040.Google Scholar
Dweck, C. S. & Licht, B. G. (1980). Learned helplessness and intellectual achievement. Human Helplessness: Theory and Applications, 197221.Google Scholar
Dye, M. W. G., Green, C. S., & Bavelier, D. (2009). Increasing speed of processing with action video games. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 321326.Google Scholar
Eastin, M. S., Appiah, O., & Cicchirllo, V. (2009). Identification and the influence of cultural Stereotyping on postvideogame play hostility. Human Communication Research, 35(3), 337356. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2009.01354.x.Google Scholar
Ebbinghaus, H. (1885/1964). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology. Oxford: Dover.Google Scholar
Eichenbaum, H. (2008). Learning & memory. New York: WW Norton.Google Scholar
Ellis, H. & Hunt, R. (1993). Fundamentals of cognitive psychology. Madison (5th ed.). Dubuque, IA: Brown & Benchmark.Google Scholar
Entertainment Software Association. (January 13, 2011). Flawed video game study to be released next week: Study produced by author with long anti-video game history. Retrieved from Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Ericsson, K. A., Chase, W. G., & Faloon, S. (1980). Acquisition of a memory skill. Science, 208(4448), 11811182.Google Scholar
Fam, J. Y. (2018). Prevalence of internet gaming disorder in adolescents: A meta-analysis across three decades. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 59(5), 524531. http://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12459.Google Scholar
Ferguson, C. J. (2007a). Evidence for publication bias in video game violence effects literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 12, 133.Google Scholar
Ferguson, C. J. (2007b). The good, the bad and the ugly: A meta-analytic review of positive and negative effects of violent video games. Psychiatric Quarterly, 78, 309316.Google Scholar
Ferguson, C. J. (2008). The school shooting/violent video game link: Causal relationship or moral panic? Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 5(1–2), 2537. http://doi.org/10.1002/jip.76.Google Scholar
Ferguson, C. J. & Beresin, E. (2017). Social science’s curious war with pop culture and how it was lost: The media violence debate and the risks it holds for social science. Preventive Medicine, 99, 6976. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.02.009.Google Scholar
Ferguson, C. J., Brown, J. M., & Torres, A. V. (2018). Education or indoctrination? The accuracy of introductory psychology textbooks in covering controversial topics and urban legends about psychology. Current Psychology, 37(3), 574582.Google Scholar
Ferster, C. B. & Skinner, B. F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement. East Norwalk, CT: Appleton-Century-Crofts.Google Scholar
Fischer, P., Greitemeyer, T., Kastenmüller, A., Vogrincic, C., & Sauer, A. (2011). The effects of risk-glorifying media exposure on risk-positive cognitions, emotions, and behaviors: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 137(3), 367390. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0022267.Google Scholar
Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J., Glick, P., & Xu, J. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 878.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fiske, S. T. & Taylor, S. E. (1991). Social cognition. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Flavell, J. H. (1971). Stage-related properties of cognitive development. Cognitive Psychology, 2, 421453.Google Scholar
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906.Google Scholar
Flavell, J. H., Friedrichs, A. G., & Hoyt, J. D. (1970). Developmental changes in memorization processes. Cognitive Psychology, 1(4), 324340.Google Scholar
Fontana, L. & Beckerman, A. (2004). Childhood violence prevention education using video games. Information Technology in Childhood Education Annual, 2004 (1), 4962.Google Scholar
Fox, J., Ralston, R. A., Cooper, C. K., & Jones, K. A. (2015). Sexualized avatars lead to women’s self-objectification and acceptance of rape myths. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 39(3), 349362. http://doi.org/10.1177/0361684314553578.Google Scholar
Franceschini, S., Gori, S., Ruffino, M., Viola, S., Molteni, M., & Facoetti, A. (2013). Action video games make dyslexic children read better. Current Biology, 23(6), 462466. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2013.01.044.Google Scholar
Garcia, J. & Ervin, F. (1968). Gustatory-visceral and telereceptor-cutaneous conditioning: Adaptation in internal and external milieus. Communications in Behavioral Biology, 1(Part A), 389415.Google Scholar
Geen, R. G. (2001). Human aggression (2nd ed.). Buckingham: Open University Press.Google Scholar
Geller, J., Toftness, A. R., Armstrong, P. I., Carpenter, S. K., Manz, C. L., Coffman, C. R., & Lamm, M. H. (2018). Study strategies and beliefs about learning as a function of academic achievement and achievement goals. Memory, 26(5), 683690.Google Scholar
Gentile, D. A. (2009). Pathological video game use among youth 8 to 18: A national study. Psychological Science, 20, 594602.Google Scholar
Gentile, D. A. (2011). The multiple dimensions of video game effects. Child Development Perspectives, 5, 7581.Google Scholar
Gentile, D. A. (2014). Media violence and children: A complete guide for parents and professionals (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.Google Scholar
Gentile, D. A. & Anderson, C. A. (2003). Violent video games: The newest media violence hazard. In Gentile, D. A. (ed.), Media violence and children: A complete guide for parents and professionals (pp. 131152). Westport, CT: Praeger.Google Scholar
Gentile, D. A., Anderson, C. A., Yukawa, S., Saleem, M., Lim, K. M., Shibuya, A., … Sakamoto, A. (2009). The effects of prosocial video games on prosocial behaviors: International evidence from correlational, longitudinal, and experimental studies. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 752763.Google Scholar
Gentile, D. A., Bailey, K., Bavelier, D., Brockmyer, J. F., Cash, H., Coyne, S. M., … Young, K. (2017). Internet gaming disorder in children and adolescents. Pediatrics, 140(Supplement 2), S81S85. http://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-1758h.Google Scholar
Gentile, D. A. & Bushman, B. J. (2012). Reassessing media violence effects using a risk and resilience approach to understanding aggression. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 1, 138151.Google Scholar
Gentile, D. A., Choo, H., Liau, A. K., Sim, T., Li, D., Fung, D., & Khoo, A. (2011). Pathological video game use among youths: A two-year longitudinal study. Pediatrics, 127, e319e329.Google Scholar
Gentile, D. A. & Gentile, J. R. (2008). Violent video games as exemplary teachers: A conceptual analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 9, 127141.Google Scholar
Gentile, D. A., Groves, C., & Gentile, J. R. (2014). The general learning model: Unveiling the learning potential from video games. In Blumberg, F. C. (ed.), Learning by playing: Video gaming in education (pp. 121142). New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gentile, D. A., Li, D., Khoo, A., Prot, S., & Anderson, C. A. (2014). Mediators and moderators of long-term effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior: Practice, thinking, and action. JAMA Pediatrics, 168(5), 450457. http://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.63.Google Scholar
Gentile, D. A., Lynch, P. J., Linder, J. R., & Walsh, D. A. (2004). The effects of violent video game habits on adolescent hostility, aggressive behaviors, and school performance. Journal of Adolescence, 27(1), 522.Google Scholar
Gentile, D. A., Maier, J. A., Hasson, M. R., & de Bonetti, B. L. (2011). Parents’ evaluation of media ratings a decade after the television ratings were introduced. Pediatrics, 128, 3644.Google Scholar
Gentile, D. A. & Murray, J. P. (2014). Media violence and public policy: Where we have been and where we should go next. In Gentile, D. A. (ed.), Media violence and children (2nd ed., pp. 413432). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio.Google Scholar
Gentile, D. A. & Sesma, A. (2003). Developmental approaches to understanding media effects on individuals. In Gentile, D. A. (ed.), Media violence and children: A complete guide for parents and professionals (pp. 1938). Westport, CT: Praeger.Google Scholar
Gentile, D. A., Swing, E. L., Lim, C. G., & Khoo, A. (2012). Video game playing, attention problems, and impulsiveness: Evidence of bi-directional causality. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 1, 6270.Google Scholar
Gentile, J. R. (2000). Transfer of learning. In Kazdin, Alan E., Encyclopedia of psychology (Vol. 5, pp. 1316). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association/Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gentile, J. R. & Lalley, J. P. (2003). Standards and mastery learning: Aligning teaching and assessment so all children can learn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.Google Scholar
Gentile, J. R., Monaco, N., Iheozor-Ejiofor, I. E., Ndu, A. N., & Ogbonaya, P. K. (1982). Retention by “fast” and “slow” learners. Intelligence, 6(2), 125138. http://doi.org/10.1016/0160-2896(82)90010-1.Google Scholar
Gentile, J. R. & Monaco, N. M. (1988). A learned helplessness analysis of perceived failure in mathematics. Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics, 10(1), 1528.Google Scholar
Gibson, E. J. (1963). Perceptual learning. Annual Review of Psychology, 14(1), 2956. http://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.14.020163.000333.Google Scholar
Gibson, E. J. (1969). Principles of perceptual learning and development. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.Google Scholar
Gibson, E. J. & Pick, A. D. (2000). An ecological approach to perceptual learning and development. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Godden, D. R. & Baddeley, A. D. (1975). Context-dependent memory in two natural environments: On land and underwater. British Journal of Psychology, 66, 325331.Google Scholar
Gopher, D., Weil, M., & Bareket, T. (1994). Transfer of skill from a computer game trainer to flight. Human Factors, 36, 387405.Google Scholar
Green, C. S. & Bavelier, D. (2003). Action video game modifies visual selective attention. Nature, 423, 534537.Google Scholar
Green, C. S. & Bavelier, D. (2006). Enumeration versus multiple object tracking: The case of action video game players. Cognition, 101(1), 217245. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2005.10.004.Google Scholar
Green, C. S. & Bavelier, D. (2007). Action-video-game experience alters the spatial resolution of vision. Psychological Science, 18(1), 8894. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01853.x.Google Scholar
Green, C. S., Li, R., & Bavelier, D. (2010). Perceptual learning during action video game playing. Topics in Cognitive Science, 2(2), 202216. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1756-8765.2009.01054.x.Google Scholar
Gregory, S. C. & Bunch, M. E. (1959). The relative retentive abilities of fast and slow learners. The Journal of General Psychology, 60(2), 173181.Google Scholar
Greitemeyer, T., Agthe, M., Turner, R., & Gschwendtner, C. (2012). Acting prosocially reduces retaliation: Effects of prosocial video games on aggressive behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42(2), 235242. http://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.1837.Google Scholar
Greitemeyer, T. & Mügge, D. O. (2014). Video games do affect social outcomes: A meta-analytic review of the effects of violent and prosocial video game play. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 40, 578589.Google Scholar
Greitemeyer, T. & Osswald, S. (2009). Prosocial video games reduce aggressive cognitions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(4), 896900. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.04.005.Google Scholar
Greitemeyer, T., & Osswald, S. (2010). Effects of prosocial video games on prosocial behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(2), 211221. doi:10.1037/a0016997Google Scholar
Greitemeyer, T. & Osswald, S. (2011). Playing prosocial video games increases the accessibility of prosocial thoughts. The Journal of Social Psychology, 151(2), 121128. http://doi.org/10.1080/00224540903365588.Google Scholar
Greitemeyer, T., Osswald, S., & Brauer, M. (2010). Playing prosocial video games increases empathy and decreases schadenfreude. Emotion, 10(6), 796.Google Scholar
Griffiths, M. D. (2000). Does internet and computer “addiction” exist? Some case study evidence. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 3, 211218.Google Scholar
Grubb, J. (2020). NPD: The 20 best-selling games of 2019 in the U.S. Retrieved from https://venturebeat.com/2020/01/16/20-best-selling-games-of-2019/.Google Scholar
Guéguen, N., Jacob, C., & Lamy, L. (2010). “Love is in the air”: Effects of songs with romantic lyrics on compliance with a courtship request. Psychology of Music, 38(3), 303307. http://doi.org/10.1177/0305735609360428.Google Scholar
Hall, D. (Producer) (June 25, 2020). The Eliza effect. Retrieved from https://99percentinvisible.org/episode/the-eliza-effect/.Google Scholar
Halpern, A. R. & Bower, G. H. (1982). Musical expertise and melodic structure in memory for musical notation. The American Journal of Psychology, 95, 3150.Google Scholar
Hebb, D. O. (1949). The organization of behavior: A neuropsychological theory. New York: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Hebb, D. O. (1959). A neuropsychological theory. In Koch, S. E. (ed.), Psychology: A study of a science (Vol. 1, pp. 622643). New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Hilgard, J., Engelhardt, C. R., Rouder, J. N., Segert, I. L., & Bartholow, B. D. (2019). Null effects of game violence, game difficulty, and 2D:4D digit ratio on aggressive behavior. Psychological Science, 30(4), 606616. http://doi.org/10.1177/0956797619829688.Google Scholar
Huesmann, L. R. & Eron, L. D. (1986). Television and the aggressive child: A cross-national comparison. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Huesmann, L. R. & Guerra, N. G. (1997). Normative beliefs and the development of aggressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 112.Google Scholar
Hulse, S. H., Egeth, H., & Deese, J. (1980). The psychology of learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Hunter, I. (1978). The role of memory in expert mental calculations. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Huston, A. C., Donnerstein, E., Fairchild, H., Feshbach, N. D., Katz, P. A., Murray, J. P., … Zuckerman, D. M. (1992). Big world, small screen: The role of television in American society. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
International Society for Research on Aggression. (2012). Report of the media violence commission. Aggressive Behavior, 38(5), 335341. http://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21443.Google Scholar
James, W. (1906). Talks to teachers on psychology: And to students on some of live’s ideals. New York: Henry Holt.Google Scholar
Jin, Y. & Li, J. (2017). When newbies and veterans play together: The effect of video game content, context and experience on cooperation. Computers in Human Behavior, 68, 556563. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.11.059.Google Scholar
Judd, C. H. (1908). The relation of special training and general intelligence. Educational Review, 36, 2842.Google Scholar
Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Keeney, T. J., Cannizzo, S. R., & Flavell, J. H. (1967). Spontaneous and induced verbal rehearsal in a recall task. Child Development, 38, 953966.Google Scholar
Kim, E., Anderson, C. A., & Gentile, D. A. (2021). The 7 +/- 2 deadly sins of video game violence research. In Strasburger, V. C. (ed.), Masters of media (Vol. 1, pp. 1942). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Kirsh, S. J. (1998). Seeing the world through Mortal Kombat-colored glasses: Violent video games and the development of a short-term hostile attribution bias. Childhood, 5, 177184.Google Scholar
Kleinsmith, L. J. & Kaplan, S. (1963). Paired-associate learning as a function of arousal and interpolated interval. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 65(2), 190.Google Scholar
Kneer, J., Elson, M., & Knapp, F. (2016). Fight fire with rainbows: The effects of displayed violence, difficulty, and performance in digital games on affect, aggression, and physiological arousal. Computers in Human Behavior, 54, 142148. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.07.034.Google Scholar
Konijn, E. A., Bijvank, M. N., & Bushman, B. J. (2007). I wish I were a warrior: The role of wishful identification in the effects of violent video games on aggression in adolescent boys. Developmental Psychology, 43(4), 10381044. http://doi.org/2007-09251-019 [pii] 10.1037/0012–1649.43.4.1038.Google Scholar
Krueger, W. C. F. (1929). The effect of overlearning on retention. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 12(1), 7178. http://doi.org/10.1037/h0072036.Google Scholar
Kühn, S., Kugler, D. T., Schmalen, K., Weichenberger, M., Witt, C., & Gallinat, J. (2019). Does playing violent video games cause aggression? A longitudinal intervention study. Molecular Psychiatry, 24(8), 12201234. http://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-018-0031-7.Google Scholar
Langille, J. J. & Brown, R. E. (2018). The synaptic theory of memory: A historical survey and reconciliation of recent opposition. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 12, 52–52. http://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2018.00052.Google Scholar
Lapierre, M. A. & Farrar, K. M. (2018). Learning to love guns? Gun-based gameplay’s links to gun attitudes. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 7(3), 216230. http://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000132.Google Scholar
Lazarus, R. S. (1982). Thoughts on the relations between emotion and cognition. American Psychologist, 37(9), 1019.Google Scholar
Lazarus, R. S. (1984). On the primacy of cognition. American Psychologist, 39(2), 124129. http://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.39.2.124.Google Scholar
Li, J.-Y. & Jin, Y.-C. (2014). The effects of violent video games and prosocial video games on cognition, emotion and behavior. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 22(6), 985988.Google Scholar
Li, R., Polat, U., Makous, W., & Bavelier, D. (2009). Enhancing the contrast sensitivity function through action video game training. Nature Neuroscience, 12, 549551.Google Scholar
Li, R. W., Ngo, C., Nguyen, J., & Levi, D. M. (2011). Video-game play induces plasticity in the visual system of adults with amblyopia. PLoS Biology, 9(8), e1001135. http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Libet, B., Gleason, C. A., Wright, E. W., & Pearl, D. K. (1983). Time of conscious intention to act in relation to onset of cerebral activity (readiness-potential): The unconscious initiation of a freely voluntary act. Brain, 106(3), 623642. http://doi.org/10.1093/brain/106.3.623.Google Scholar
Lieberman, D. A. (1997). Interactive video games for health promotion: Effects on knowledge, self-efficacy, social support, and health. In Street, R. L., Gold, W. R., & Manning, T. (eds.), Health promotion and interactive technology: Theoretical applications and future directions (pp. 103120). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Lieberman, D. A. (2001a). Management of chronic pediatric diseases with interactive health games: Theory and research findings. Journal of Ambulatory Care Management, 24(1), 2638.Google Scholar
Lieberman, D. A. (2001b). Using interactive media in communication campaigns for children and adolescents. In R. Rice, E. & Atkin, C. K. (eds.), Public communication campaigns (3rd ed., pp. 373–388). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Liu, L., Yao, Y.-W., Li, C.-S. R., Zhang, J.-T., Xia, C.-C., Lan, J., … Fang, X.-Y. (2018). The comorbidity between internet gaming disorder and depression: Interrelationship and neural mechanisms. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 154. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00154.Google Scholar
Loftus, E. F. (1992). When a lie becomes memory’s truth: Memory distortion after exposure to misinformation. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1(4), 121123.Google Scholar
Lynch, T., Tompkins, J. E., van Driel, I. I., & Fritz, N. (2016). Sexy, strong, and secondary: A content analysis of female characters in video games across 31 years. Journal of Communication, 66(4), 564584. http://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12237.Google Scholar
Macnamara, B. N., Hambrick, D. Z., & Oswald, F. L. (2014). Deliberate practice and performance in music, games, sports, education, and professions: A meta-analysis. Psychological Science, 25(8), 16081618.Google Scholar
Maher, C. (2019). Video game sales to be just shy of $150 billion in 2019. Retrieved from www.vg247.com/2019/11/24/video-game-sales-150-billion-2019/#:~:text=Earlier%20this%20year%20it%20was,figure%20has%20recently%20been%20amended.Google Scholar
Maier, J. A. & Gentile, D. A. (2012). Learning aggression through the media: Comparing psychological and communication approaches. In Shrum, L. J. (ed.), The psychology of entertainment media: Blurring the lines between entertainment and persuasion (2nd ed., pp. 267299). New York: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Markey, P. M. & Ferguson, C. J. (2017a). Internet gaming addiction: Disorder or moral panic? American Journal of Psychiatry, 174(3), 195196. http://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16121341.Google Scholar
Markey, P. M. & Ferguson, C. J. (2017b). Teaching us to fear: The violent video game moral panic and the politics of game research. American Journal of Play, 10(1), 99115.Google Scholar
Mihara, S. & Higuchi, S. (2017). Cross-sectional and longitudinal epidemiological studies of internet gaming disorder: A systematic review of the literature. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 71(7), 425444. http://doi.org/10.1111/pcn.12532.Google Scholar
Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 8197. http://doi.org/10.1037/h0043158.Google Scholar
Mullin, C. R. & Linz, D. (1995). Desensitization and resensitization to violence against women: Effects of exposure to sexually violent films on judgements of domestic violent victims. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 449459.Google Scholar
National Institute on Mental Health. (1982). Television and behavior: Ten years of scientific progress and implications for the eighties (Vol. 1). Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive psychology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.Google Scholar
Ophir, E., Nass, C., & Wagner, A. D. (2009). Cognitive control in media multitaskers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106, 1558315587.Google Scholar
Paik, H. & Comstock, G. (1994). The effects of television violence on antisocial behavior – A meta-analysis. Communication Research, 21, 516546.Google Scholar
Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory: Retrospect and current status. Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie, 45(3), 255.Google Scholar
Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes: An investigation of the physiological activity of the cerebral cortex. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Pearl, D. (1982a). Television and behavior: Ten years of scientific progress and implications for the eighties (Volume II: Technical Reviews). Rockville, MD: National Institute of Mental Health.Google Scholar
Pearl, D. (1982b). Television and behavior: Ten years of scientific progress and implications for the eighties (Volume 1: Summary Report). Rockville, MD: National Institute of Mental Health.Google Scholar
Perry, L. K., Samuelson, L. K., Malloy, L. M., & Schiffer, R. N. (2010). Learn locally, think globally: Exemplar variability supports higher-order generalization and word learning. Psychological Science, 21(12), 18941902.Google Scholar
Plante, C., Anderson, C. A., Allen, J., Groves, C. L., & Gentile, D. A. (2020). Game on! Sensible answers about video games and media violence. Ames, IA: Zengen LLC.Google Scholar
Pope, Z., Zeng, N., & Gao, Z. (2017). The effects of active video games on patients’ rehabilitative outcomes: A meta-analysis. Preventive Medicine, 95, 3846. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2016.12.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Postman, L. (1962). Retention as a function of degree of overlearning. Science, 135, 666667. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.135.3504.666.Google Scholar
Pressley, M., Borkowski, J. G., & O’Sullivan, J. T. (1984). Memory strategy instruction is made of this: Metamemory and durable strategy use. Educational Psychologist, 19(2), 94107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prot, S. & Gentile, D. A. (2014). Applying risk and resilience models to predicting the effects of media violence on development. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 46, 215244.Google Scholar
Prot, S., Gentile, D. A., Anderson, C. A., Suzuki, K., Swing, E., Lim, K. M., … Lam, B. C. P. (2014). Long-term relations among prosocial-media use, empathy, and prosocial behavior. Psychological Science, 25(2), 358368. http://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613503854.Google Scholar
Rakison, D. H. & Yermolayeva, Y. (2011). How to identify a domain-general learning mechanism when you see one. Journal of Cognition and Development, 12(2), 134153.Google Scholar
Ratan, R. & Sah, Y. J. (2015). Leveling up on stereotype threat: The role of avatar customization and avatar embodiment. Computers in Human Behavior, 50, 367374.Google Scholar
Ratan, R., Shen, C., & Williams, D. (2020). Men do not rule the world of tanks: Negating the gender-performance gap in a spatial-action game by controlling for time played. American Behavioral Scientist, 64(7), 10311043. http://doi.org/10.1177/0002764220919147.Google Scholar
Razran, G. (1949). Stimulus generalization of conditioned responses. Psychological Bulletin, 46(5), 337365. http://doi.org/10.1037/h0060507.Google Scholar
Reynolds, J. H. & Glaser, R. (1964). Effects of repetition and spaced review upon retention of a complex learning task. Journal of Educational Psychology, 55(5), 297.Google Scholar
Rideout, V. J., Foehr, U. G., & Roberts, D. F. (2010). Generation M2: Media in the lives of 8- to 18-year-olds. Menlo Park, CA: Kaiser Family Foundation.Google Scholar
Rideout, V. J. & Robb, M. B. (2019). The common sense census: Media use by tweens and teens.San Francisco, CA: Common Sense Media.Google Scholar
Rokkum, J. N. & Gentile, D. A. (2018). Primary versus secondary disorder in the context of internet gaming disorder. Current Addiction Reports, 5(4), 485490. http://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-018-0222-y.Google Scholar
Rosser, J. C., Gentile, D. A., Hanigan, K., & Danner, O. K. (2012). The effect of video game “warm-up” on performance of laparoscopic surgery tasks. Journal of the Society of Laparoendoscopic Surgeons, 16, 39.Google Scholar
Rosser, J. C., Lynch, P. J., Cuddihy, L., Gentile, D. A., Klonsky, J., & Merrell, R. (2007). The impact of video games on training surgeons in the 21st century. Archives of Surgery, 142, 181186. http://doi.org/142/2/181 [pii]10.1001/archsurg.142.2.181.Google Scholar
Rothman, A. J. & Hardin, C. D. (1997). Differential use of the availability heuristic in social judgment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(2), 123138. http://doi.org/10.1177/0146167297232002.Google Scholar
Ruth, N. (2016). “Heal the world”: A field experiment on the effects of music with prosocial lyrics on prosocial behavior. Psychology of Music, 45(2), 298304. http://doi.org/10.1177/0305735616652226.Google Scholar
Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L. (2000). The darker and brighter sides of human existence: Basic psychological needs as a unifying concept. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 319338.Google Scholar
Ryan, R. M., Rigby, C. S., & Przybylski, A. (2006). The motivational pull of video games: A self-determination theory approach. Motivation and Emotion, 30, 347363.Google Scholar
Saleem, M. & Anderson, C. A. (2013). Arabs as terrorists: Effects of stereotypes within violent contexts on attitudes, perceptions, and affect. Psychology of Violence, 3(1), 8499. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0030038.Google Scholar
Saleem, M., Anderson, C. A., & Gentile, D. A. (2012a). Effects of prosocial, neutral, and violent video games on children’s helpful and hurtful behaviors. Aggressive Behavior, 38(4), 281287. http://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21428.Google Scholar
Saleem, M., Anderson, C. A., & Gentile, D. A. (2012b). Effects of prosocial, neutral, and violent video games on college students’ affect. Aggressive Behavior, 38(4), 263271. http://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21427.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saleem, M., Barlett, C. P., Anderson, C. A., & Hawkins, I. (2017). Helping and hurting others: Person and situation effects on aggressive and prosocial behavior as assessed by the Tangram task. Aggressive Behavior, 43(2), 133146.Google Scholar
Saleem, M., Prot, S., Anderson, C. A., & Lemieux, A. F. (2017). Exposure to Muslims in media and support for public policies harming Muslims. Communication Research, 44(6), 841869.Google Scholar
Salomon, G. & Perkins, D. N. (1989). Rocky roads to transfer: Rethinking the mechanism of a neglected phenomenon. Educational Psychologist, 24(2), 113142.Google Scholar
Savage, J. & Yancey, C. (2008). The effects of media violence exposure on criminal aggression: A meta-analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35, 772791.Google Scholar
Schwarz, N., Bless, H., Strack, F., Klumpp, G., Rittenauer-Schatka, H., & Simons, A. (1991). Ease of retrieval as information: Another look at the availability heuristic. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(2), 195202. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.195.Google Scholar
Seligman, M. E. P. (1974). Depression and learned helplessness. Washington: John Wiley.Google Scholar
Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Helplessness: On depression, development, and death. A series of books in psychology. New York: WH Freeman/Times Books/Henry Holt.Google Scholar
Selod, S. (2015). Citizenship denied: The racialization of Muslim American men and women post-9/11. Critical Sociology, 41(1), 7795. http://doi.org/10.1177/0896920513516022.Google Scholar
Sherry, J. L. (2001). The effects of violent video games on aggression. Human Communication Research, 27, 409431.Google Scholar
Shuell, T. J. (1969). Clustering and organization in free recall. Psychological Bulletin, 72(5), 353.Google Scholar
Sidman, M. (1960). Normal sources of pathological behavior. Science, 132(3419), 6168. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.132.3419.61.Google Scholar
Siegel, J. M. (2001). The REM sleep-memory consolidation hypothesis. Science, 294(5544), 10581063.Google Scholar
Singley, M. K. & Anderson, J. R. (1989). The transfer of cognitive skill. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1938). Behavior of organisms. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1974). About behaviorism. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.Google Scholar
Spencer, S. J., Steele, C. M., & Quinn, D. M. (1999). Stereotype threat and women’s math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(1), 428. http://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1998.1373.Google Scholar
Statista Research Department. (2016). U.S. computer and video game sales from 2000 to 2015. Retrieved from www.statista.com/statistics/273258/us-computer-and-video-game-sales/.Google Scholar
Subcommittee on Youth Violence. (2013). Youth violence: What we need to know. Washington, DC: National Science Foundation.Google Scholar
Subrahmanyam, K. & Greenfield, P. M. (1994). Effect of video game practice on spatial skills in girls and boys. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 15(1), 1332. http://doi.org/10.1016/0193-3973(94)90004-3.Google Scholar
Swing, E. L. & Anderson, C. A. (2014). The role of attention problems and impulsiveness in media violence effects on aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 40(3), 197203. http://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21519.Google Scholar
Swing, E. L., Gentile, D. A., Anderson, C. A., & Walsh, D. A. (2010). Television and video game exposure and the development of attention problems. Pediatrics, 126, 214221. http://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-1508.Google Scholar
Teasdale, J. D. & Russell, M. L. (1983). Differential effects of induced mood on the recall of positive, negative and neutral words. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 22(3), 163171.Google Scholar
Thorndike, E. L. (1911). Animal intelligence: Experimental studies. New York, Hafner: Forgotten Books.Google Scholar
Thorndike, E. L. (1923). The influence of first-year Latin upon ability to read english. School & Society, 17, 165168.Google Scholar
Thorndike, E. L. & Woodworth, R. S. (1901). The influence of improvement in one mental function upon the efficiency of other functions. II. The estimation of magnitudes. Psychological Review, 8(4), 384.Google Scholar
Tolman, E. C. (1932). Purposive behavior in animals and men. New York:Century.Google Scholar
Tolman, E. C. (1959). Principles of purposive behavior. Psychology: A Study of a Science, 2, 92157.Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (1962). The effect of alphabetical subjective organization on memorizing unrelated words. Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie, 16(3), 185.Google Scholar
Tulving, E. & Psotka, J. (1971). Retroactive inhibition in free recall: Inaccessibility of information available in the memory store. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 87(1), 1.Google Scholar
Tulving, E. & Thomson, D. M. (1973). Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychological Review, 80(5), 352373.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Underwood, B. J. (1954). Speed of learning and amount retained: A consideration of methodology. Psychological Bulletin, 51(3), 276.Google Scholar
Underwood, B. J. (1957). Interference and forgetting. Psychological Review, 64(1), 49.Google Scholar
Surgeon General, US. (2001). Youth violence: A report of the surgeon general. Washington, DC: United States Surgeon General.Google Scholar
Walker, M. P. & Stickgold, R. (2004). Sleep-dependent learning and memory consolidation. Neuron, 44(1), 121133. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2004.08.031.Google Scholar
Walsh, D. A. & Gentile, D. A. (2001). A validity test of movie, television, and video-game ratings. Pediatrics, 107(6), 13021308. http://doi.org/10.1542/peds.107.6.1302.Google Scholar
Warren, R. M. & Warren, R. P. (1970). Auditory illusions and confusions. Scientific American, 223(6), 3037.Google Scholar
Wartberg, L., Kriston, L., Zieglmeier, M., Lincoln, T., & Kammerl, R. (2019). A longitudinal study on psychosocial causes and consequences of internet gaming disorder in adolescence. Psychological Medicine, 49(2), 287294. http://doi.org/10.1017/s003329171800082x.Google Scholar
Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20(2), 158177.Google Scholar
Watson, J. B. (1919). Psychology from the standpoint of a behaviorist. Philadelphia, PA: J. B. Lippincott.Google Scholar
Watson, J. B. & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional responses. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3(1), 114.Google Scholar
Weiner, B. (1974). Achievement motivation and attribution theory. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.Google Scholar
Weiner, B. (2010). The development of an attribution-based theory of motivation: A history of ideas. Educational Psychologist, 45(1), 2836.Google Scholar
Willingham, D. T. (2004). Ask the cognitive scientist practice makes perfect, but only if you practice beyond the point of perfection. American Educator, 28(1), 3133.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. (April 2019). ICD-11 for mortality and morbidity statistics: 6C51 gaming disorder. Retrieved from https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/1448597234.Google Scholar
Xu, W., Liang, H.-N., Baghaei, N., Wu Berberich, B., & Yue, Y. (2020). Health benefits of digital videogames for the aging population: A systematic review. Games for Health Journal, 9, 389404.Google Scholar
Yao, M. Z., Mahood, C., & Linz, D. (2010). Sexual priming, gender stereotyping, and likelihood to sexually harass: Examining the cognitive effects of playing a sexually-explicit video game. Sex Roles, 62(1–2), 7788. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9695-4.Google Scholar
Yee, N. (2001). The Norrathian scrolls: A study of EverQuest (Version 2.5). Retrieved from www.nickyee.com/eqt/report.html.Google Scholar
Zajonc, R. B. (1980). Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no inferences. American Psychologist, 35(2), 151175. http://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.35.2.151.Google Scholar
Zajonc, R. B. (1984). On the primacy of affect. American Psychologist, 39(2), 117123. http://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.39.2.117.Google Scholar

Save element to Kindle

To save this element to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Learning from Video Games (and Everything Else)
Available formats
×

Save element to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Learning from Video Games (and Everything Else)
Available formats
×

Save element to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Learning from Video Games (and Everything Else)
Available formats
×