Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-m6dg7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T15:32:48.830Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Mental health and conspirasism in health care professionals during the spring 2020 COVID-19 lockdown in Greece

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 December 2021

Konstantinos N. Fountoulakis ,
Maria K. Apostolidou ,
Marina B. Atsiova ,
Anna K. Filippidou ,
Angeliki K. Florou ,
Dimitra S. Gousiou ,
Aikaterini R. Katsara ,
Sofia N. Mantzari ,
Marina Padouva-Markoulaki  and
Evangelia I. Papatriantafyllou
...Show all authors
Konstantinos N. Fountoulakis*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
Maria K. Apostolidou
Affiliation:
PMS “Clinical Mental Health” Faculty of Medicine, School of Health sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
Marina B. Atsiova
Affiliation:
PMS “Clinical Mental Health” Faculty of Medicine, School of Health sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
Anna K. Filippidou
Affiliation:
PMS “Clinical Mental Health” Faculty of Medicine, School of Health sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
Angeliki K. Florou
Affiliation:
PMS “Clinical Mental Health” Faculty of Medicine, School of Health sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
Dimitra S. Gousiou
Affiliation:
PMS “Clinical Mental Health” Faculty of Medicine, School of Health sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
Aikaterini R. Katsara
Affiliation:
PMS “Clinical Mental Health” Faculty of Medicine, School of Health sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
Sofia N. Mantzari
Affiliation:
PMS “Clinical Mental Health” Faculty of Medicine, School of Health sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
Marina Padouva-Markoulaki
Affiliation:
PMS “Clinical Mental Health” Faculty of Medicine, School of Health sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
Evangelia I. Papatriantafyllou
Affiliation:
PMS “Clinical Mental Health” Faculty of Medicine, School of Health sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
Panagiota I. Sacharidi
Affiliation:
PMS “Clinical Mental Health” Faculty of Medicine, School of Health sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
Aikaterini I. Tonia
Affiliation:
PMS “Clinical Mental Health” Faculty of Medicine, School of Health sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
Eleni G. Tsagalidou
Affiliation:
PMS “Clinical Mental Health” Faculty of Medicine, School of Health sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
Vasiliki P. Zymara
Affiliation:
PMS “Clinical Mental Health” Faculty of Medicine, School of Health sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
Panagiotis E Prezerakos
Affiliation:
Department of Nursing, University of Peloponnese, Laboratory of Integrated Health Care, Tripoli, Greece
Sotirios A. Koupidis
Affiliation:
Occupational and Environmental Health Sector, Public Health Policy Department, School of Public Health, University of West Attica, Athens, Greece
Nikolaos K. Fountoulakis
Affiliation:
Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria
Anastasia Konsta
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
Eva Maria Tsapakis
Affiliation:
Agios Charalampos Mental Health Clinic, Heraklion Crete, Greece
Pavlos N. Theodorakis
Affiliation:
Health Policy, WHO Regional Office for Europe, Athens, Greece
Elias Mossialos
Affiliation:
Department of Health Policy, London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE), London, UK
*
Author for correspondence: Konstantinos N. Fountoulakis, Email: kfount@med.auth.gr
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Introduction:

The aim of the study was to investigate mental health and conspiracy theory beliefs concerning COVID-19 among health care professionals (HCPs).

Material and methods:

During lockdown, an online questionnaire gathered data from 507 HCPs (432 females aged 33.86 ± 8.63 and 75 males aged 39.09 ± 9.54).

Statistical analysis:

A post-stratification method to transform the study sample was used; descriptive statistics were calculated.

Results:

Anxiety and probable depression were increased 1.5–2-fold and were higher in females and nurses. Previous history of depression was the main risk factor. The rates of believing in conspiracy theories concerning the COVID-19 were alarming with the majority of individuals (especially females) following some theory to at least some extend.

Conclusions:

The current paper reports high rates of depression, distress and suicidal thoughts in the HCPs during the lockdown, with a high prevalence of beliefs in conspiracy theories. Female gender and previous history of depression acted as risk factors, while the belief in conspiracy theories might act as a protective factor. The results should be considered with caution due to the nature of the data (online survey on a self-selected but stratified sample).

Keywords

COVID-19health care workersdoctorsnurseslockdowndepressionsuicidalitymental healthconspiracy theories
Type
Original Article
Information
Acta Neuropsychiatrica , Volume 34 , Issue 3 , June 2022 , pp. 132 - 147
Check for updates
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Scandinavian College of Neuropsychopharmacology

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ahmed, W, Vidal-Alaball, J, Downing, j and Lopez Segui, F (2020) COVID-19 and the 5G conspiracy theory: social network analysis of Twitter data. Journal of Medical Internet Research 22(5), e19458.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Al Mahyijari, N, Badahdah, AM and Khamis, F (2020) The psychological impacts of COVID-19: a study of frontline physicians and nurses in the Arab world. Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine, 1–17.Google ScholarPubMed
Alateeq, DA, Aljhani, s, Althiyabi, i and Majzoub, S (2020) Mental health among healthcare providers during coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak in Saudi Arabia. J Infect Public Health 13(10), 1432–1437.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aleman, A and Swart, M (2008) Sex differences in neural activation to facial expressions denoting contempt and disgust. PLoS One 3(11), e3622.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Amin, F, Sharif, S, Saeed, R, Durrani, N and Jilani, D (2020) COVID-19 pandemic- knowledge, perception, anxiety and depression among frontline doctors of Pakistan. BMC Psychiatry 20(1), 459.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
An, Y, Yang, Y, Wang, A, Li, Y, Zhang, Q, Cheung, T, Ungvari, GS, Qin, MZ, An, FR, Xiang, YT (2020) Prevalence of depression and its impact on quality of life among frontline nurses in emergency departments during the COVID-19 outbreak. Journal of Affective Disorders 276, 312–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arnetz, JE, Goetz, CM, Sudan, S, Arble, E, Janisse, J and Arnetz, BB (2020) Personal protective equipment and mental health symptoms among nurses during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 62(11), 892–897.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Asmundson, GJG and Taylor, S (2021) Garbage in, garbage out: the tenuous state of research on PTSD in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic and infodemic. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 78(1), 102368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Awano, N, Oyama, N, Akiyama, K, Inomata, M, Kuse, N, Tone, M, Takada, K, Muto, Y, Fujimoto, K, Akagi, Y, Mawatari, M, Ueda, A, Kawakami, J, Komatsu, J, Izumo, T (2020) Anxiety, depression, and resilience of healthcare workers in Japan during the coronavirus disease 2019 outbreak. Internal Medicine 59(21), 2693–2699.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Azoulay, E, Cariou, A, Bruneel, F, Demoule, A, Kouatchet, A, Reuter, D, Souppart, V, Combes, A, Klouche, K, Argaud, L, Barbier, F, Jourdain, M, Reignier, J, Papazian, L, Guidet, B, Geri, G, Resche-Rigon, M, Guisset, O, Labbe, V, Megarbane, B, Van Der Meersch, G, Guitton, C, Friedman, D, Pochard, F, Darmon, M, Kentish-Barnes, N and Group, FS (2020) Symptoms of anxiety, depression and peritraumatic dissociation in critical care clinicians managing COVID-19 patients: a cross-sectional study. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 202(10), 1388–1398. .CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Badahdah, A, Khamis, F, Al Mahyijari, N, Al Balushi, M, Al Hatmi, H, Al Salmi, I, Albulushi, Z and Al Noomani, J (2020) The mental health of health care workers in Oman during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Social Psychiatry 67(1), 90–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blekas, A, Voitsidis, P, Athanasiadou, M, Parlapani, E, Chatzigeorgiou, AF, Skoupra, M, Syngelakis, M, Holeva, V and Diakogiannis, I (2020) COVID-19: PTSD symptoms in Greek health care professionals. Psychol Trauma 12(7), 812–819.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bogart, LM, Wagner, G, Galvan, FH and Banks, D (2010) Conspiracy beliefs about HIV are related to antiretroviral treatment nonadherence among African American men with HIV. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 53(5), 648–655.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cabarkapa, S, Nadjidai, SE, Murgier, J and Ng, CH (2020) The psychological impact of COVID-19 and other viral epidemics on frontline healthcare workers and ways to address it: a rapid systematic review. Brain, Behavior, & Immunity - Health 8(9), 100144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chatterjee, SS, Bhattacharyya, R, Bhattacharyya, S, Gupta, S, Das, S and Banerjee, BB (2020) Attitude, practice, behavior, and mental health impact of COVID-19 on doctors. Indian Journal of Psychiatry 62(3), 257–265.Google ScholarPubMed
Chen, R, Sun, C, Chen, JJ, Jen, HJ, Kang, XL, Kao, CC and Chou, KR (2020) A large-scale survey on trauma, burnout, and posttraumatic growth among nurses during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing 30(1), 102–116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Das, A, Sil, A, Jaiswal, S, Rajeev, R, Thole, A, Jafferany, M and Ali, SN (2020) A study to evaluate depression and perceived stress among frontline Indian doctors Combating the COVID-19 pandemic. Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders 22(5), 20m02716.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Di Blasi, M, Gullo, S, Mancinelli, E, Freda, MF, Esposito, G, Gelo, OCG, Lagetto, G, Giordano, C, Mazzeschi, C, Pazzagli, C, Salcuni, S, Lo Coco, G (2021) Psychological distress associated with the COVID-19 lockdown: a two-wave network analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders 284(2), 18–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elkholy, H, Tawfik, F, Ibrahim, I, Salah El-Din, W, Sabry, M, Mohammed, S, Hamza, M, Alaa, M, Fawzy, AZ, Ashmawy, R, Sayed, M, Omar, AN (2020) Mental health of frontline healthcare workers exposed to COVID-19 in Egypt: a call for action. International Journal of Social Psychiatry 67(5), 522–531.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Firew, T, Sano, ED, Lee, JW, Flores, S, Lang, K, Salman, K, Greene, MC and Chang, BP (2020) Protecting the front line: a cross-sectional survey analysis of the occupational factors contributing to healthcare workers' infection and psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic in the USA. BMJ Open 10(10), e042752.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fischer, H, Sandblom, J, Herlitz, A, Fransson, P, Wright, CI and Backman, L (2004) Sex-differential brain activation during exposure to female and male faces. Neuroreport 15(2), 235–238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foa, RS, Gilbert, S and Fabian, M (2020) COVID-19 and Subjective Well-Being: Separating the Effects of Lockdowns from the Pandemic. Cambridge, UK: Bennett Institute for Public Policy.Google Scholar
Fountoulakis, KN, et al. (2021) Results of the COVID-19 MEntal health inTernational for the General population (COMET-G) study. European Neuropsychopharmacology 54, 21–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fountoulakis, K, Iacovides, A, Kleanthous, S, Samolis, S, Kaprinis, SG, Sitzoglou, K, St Kaprinis, G and Bech, P (2001) Reliability, validity and psychometric properties of the Greek translation of the Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression (CES-D) Scale. BMC Psychiatry 1(1), 3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fountoulakis, KN, Apostolidou, MK, Atsiova, MB, Filippidou, AK, Florou, AK, Gousiou, DS, Katsara, AR, Mantzari, SN, Padouva-Markoulaki, M, Papatriantafyllou, EI, Sacharidi, PI, Tonia, AI, Tsagalidou, EG, Zymara, VP, Prezerakos, PE, Koupidis, SA, Fountoulakis, NK, Chrousos, GP (2020a) Self-reported changes in anxiety, depression and suicidality during the COVID-19 lockdown in Greece. Journal of Affective Disorders 279, 624–629.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fountoulakis, KN, Apostolidou, MK, Atsiova, MB, Filippidou, AK, Florou, AK, Gousiou, DS, Katsara, AR, Mantzari, SN, Padouva-Markoulaki, M, Papatriantafyllou, EI, Sacharidi, PI, Tonia, AI, Tsagalidou, EG, Zymara, VP, Prezerakos, PE, Koupidis, SA, Fountoulakis, NK, Chrousos, GP (2021) Self-reported changes in anxiety, depression and suicidality during the COVID-19 lockdown in Greece. Journal of Affective Disorders 279, 624–629.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fountoulakis, KN, Fountoulakis, NK, Koupidis, SA and Prezerakos, PE (2020b) Factors determining different death rates because of the COVID-19 outbreak among countries. Journal of Public Health 42(4), 681–687.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fountoulakis, KN, Pantoula, E, Siamouli, M, Moutou, K, Gonda, X, Rihmer, Z, Iacovides, A and Akiskal, H (2012) Development of the Risk Assessment Suicidality Scale (RASS): a population-based study. Journal of Affective Disorders 138(3), 449–457.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fountoulakis, KN, Papadopoulou, M, Kleanthous, S, Papadopoulou, A, Bizeli, V, Nimatoudis, I, Iacovides, A and Kaprinis, GS (2006) Reliability and psychometric properties of the Greek translation of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory form Y: preliminary data. Ann Gen Psychiatry 5(1), 2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freyler, A, Simor, P, Szemerszky, R, Szabolcs, Z and Koteles, F (2019) Modern health worries in patients with affective disorders. A pilot study. Ideggyogy Sz 72, 337–341.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fusar-Poli, P, Placentino, A, Carletti, F, Landi, P, Allen, P, Surguladze, S, Benedetti, F, Abbamonte, M, Gasparotti, R, Barale, F, Perez, J, Mcguire, P, Politi, P (2009) Functional atlas of emotional faces processing: a voxel-based meta-analysis of 105 functional magnetic resonance imaging studies. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience 34, 418–432.Google ScholarPubMed
Hacimusalar, Y, Kahve, AC, Yasar, AB and Aydin, MS (2020) Anxiety and hopelessness levels in COVID-19 pandemic: a comparative study of healthcare professionals and other community sample in Turkey. Journal of Psychiatric Research 129(3), 181–188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holt, D and Smith, TMF (1979) Post stratification. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series A-Statistics in Society 142(1), 33–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hong, S, Ai, M, Xu, X, Wang, W, Chen, J, Zhang, Q, Wang, L and Kuang, L (2020) Immediate psychological impact on nurses working at 42 government-designated hospitals during COVID-19 outbreak in China: A cross-sectional study. Nursing Outlook 69(1), 6–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hu, D, Kong, Y, Li, W, Han, Q, Zhang, X, Zhu, LX, Wan, SW, Liu, Z, Shen, Q, Yang, J, He, HG, Zhu, J (2020) Frontline nurses' burnout, anxiety, depression, and fear statuses and their associated factors during the COVID-19 outbreak in Wuhan, China: a large-scale cross-sectional study. EClinicalMedicine 24(2), 100424.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jo, SH, Koo, BH, Seo, WS, Yun, SH and Kim, HG (2020) The psychological impact of the coronavirus disease pandemic on hospital workers in Daegu, South Korea. Comprehensive Psychiatry 103(4), 152213.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jolley, D and Douglas, KM (2014) The effects of anti-vaccine conspiracy theories on vaccination intentions. PLoS One 9(2), e89177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Juan, Y, Yuanyuan, C, Qiuxiang, Y, Cong, L, Xiaofeng, L, Yundong, Z, Jing, C, Peifeng, Q, Yan, L, Xiaojiao, X, Yujie, L (2020) Psychological distress surveillance and related impact analysis of hospital staff during the COVID-19 epidemic in Chongqing, China. Comprehensive Psychiatry 103(10223), 152198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kang, L, Ma, S, Chen, M, Yang, J, Wang, Y, Li, R, Yao, L, Bai, H, Cai, Z, Xiang Yang, B, Hu, S, Zhang, K, Wang, G, Ma, C, Liu, Z (2020) Impact on mental health and perceptions of psychological care among medical and nursing staff in Wuhan during the 2019 novel coronavirus disease outbreak: a cross-sectional study. Brain Behavior and Immunity 87(5), 11–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaparounaki, CK, Patsali, ME, Mousa, DV, Papadopoulou, EVK, Papadopoulou, KKK and Fountoulakis, KN (2020) University students' mental health amidst the COVID-19 quarantine in Greece. Psychiatry Research 290(3), 113111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keeble, C, Law, GR, Barber, S and Baxter, PD (2015) Choosing a method to reduce selection bias: a tool for researchers. Open Journal of Epidemiology 5, 155–162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khanal, P, Devkota, N, Dahal, M, Paudel, K and Joshi, D (2020) Mental health impacts among health workers during COVID-19 in a low resource setting: a cross-sectional survey from Nepal. Global Health 16(1), 89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lai, J, Ma, S, Wang, Y, Cai, Z, Hu, J, Wei, N, Wu, J, Du, H, Chen, T, Li, R, Tan, H, Kang, L, Yao, L, Huang, M, Wang, H, Wang, G, Liu, Z, Hu, S (2020) Factors associated with mental health outcomes among health care workers exposed to coronavirus disease 2019. JAMA Network Open 3(3), e203976.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lavrakas, P (2008) Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, TM, Liu, HL, Chan, CC, Fang, SY and Gao, JH (2005) Neural activities associated with emotion recognition observed in men and women. Molecular Psychiatry 10(5), 450–455.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, TM, Liu, HL, Hoosain, R, Liao, WT, Wu, CT, Yuen, KS, Chan, CC, Fox, PT and Gao, JH (2002) Gender differences in neural correlates of recognition of happy and sad faces in humans assessed by functional magnetic resonance imaging. Neuroscience Letters 333(1), 13–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Little, RJA (1993) Post-Stratification: a modeler’s perspective. Journal of the American Statistical Association 88(423), 1001–1012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luo, M, Guo, L, Yu, M, Jiang, W and Wang, H (2020) The psychological and mental impact of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) on medical staff and general public - a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research 291(1), 113190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Macdonald, PL and Gardner, RC (2016) Type I error rate comparisons of post hoc procedures for I j Chi-Square tables. Educational and Psychological Measurement 60(5), 735–754.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maciaszek, J, Ciulkowicz, M, Misiak, B, Szczesniak, D, Luc, D, Wieczorek, T, Fila-Witecka, K, Gawlowski, P and Rymaszewska, J (2020) Mental health of medical and non-medical professionals during the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic: a cross-sectional nationwide study. Journal of Clinical Medicine 9(8), 2527.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mcclure, EB, Monk, CS, Nelson, EE, Zarahn, E, Leibenluft, E, Bilder, RM, Charney, DS, Ernst, M and Pine, DS (2004) A developmental examination of gender differences in brain engagement during evaluation of threat. Biological Psychiatry 55(11), 1047–1055.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ning, X, Yu, F, Huang, Q, Li, X, Luo, Y, Huang, Q and Chen, C (2020) The mental health of neurological doctors and nurses in Hunan Province, China during the initial stages of the COVID-19 outbreak. BMC Psychiatry 20(1), 436.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oliver, JE and Wood, T (2014) Medical conspiracy theories and health behaviors in the United States. JAMA Internal Medicine 174(5), 817–818.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pappa, S, Ntella, V, Giannakas, T, Giannakoulis, VG, Papoutsi, E and Katsaounou, P (2020) Prevalence of depression, anxiety, and insomnia among healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Brain Behavior and Immunity 88(20), 901–907.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parlapani, E, Holeva, V, Voitsidis, P, Blekas, A, Gliatas, I, Porfyri, GN, Golemis, A, Papadopoulou, K, Dimitriadou, A, Chatzigeorgiou, AF, Bairachtari, V, Patsiala, S, Skoupra, M, Papigkioti, K, Kafetzopoulou, C, Diakogiannis, I (2020) Psychological and behavioral responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in Greece. Frontiers in Psychiatry 11, 821.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patsali, ME, Mousa, DV, Papadopoulou, EVK, Papadopoulou, KKK, Kaparounaki, CK, Diakogiannis, I and Fountoulakis, KN (2020) University students' changes in mental health status and determinants of behavior during the COVID-19 lockdown in Greece. Psychiatry Research 292(5), 113298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Preti, E, Di Mattei, V, Perego, G, Ferrari, F, Mazzetti, M, Taranto, P, Di Pierro, R, Madeddu, F and Calati, R (2020) The psychological impact of epidemic and pandemic outbreaks on healthcare workers: rapid review of the evidence. Current Psychiatry Reports 22, 43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Que, J, Shi, L, Deng, J, Liu, J, Zhang, L, Wu, S, Gong, Y, Huang, W, Yuan, K, Yan, W, Sun, Y, Ran, M, Bao, Y, Lu, L (2020) Psychological impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on healthcare workers: a cross-sectional study in China. General Psychiatr 33(3), e100259.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Recchi, E, Ferragina, E, Helmeid, E, Pauly, S, Safi, M, Sauger, N and Schradie, J (2020) The "Eye of the Hurricane" paradox: an unexpected and unequal rise of well-being during the Covid-19 lockdown in France. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 68, 100508.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ren, X, Huang, W, Pan, H, Huang, T, Wang, X and Ma, Y (2020) Mental health during the Covid-19 outbreak in China: a meta-analysis. Psychiatric Quarterly 91(4), 1033–1045.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rossi, R, Jannini, TB, Socci, V, Pacitti, F and Lorenzo, GD (2021) Stressful life events and resilience during the COVID-19 lockdown measures in Italy: association with mental health outcomes and age. Frontiers in Psychiatry 12, 635832.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sacher, J, Neumann, J, Okon-Singer, H, Gotowiec, S and Villringer, A (2013) Sexual dimorphism in the human brain: evidence from neuroimaging. Magnetic Resonance Imaging 31(3), 366–375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sahin, MK, Aker, S, Sahin, G and Karabekiroglu, A (2020) Prevalence of depression, anxiety, distress and insomnia and related factors in healthcare workers during COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey. Journal of Community Health 45(6), 1168–1177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saladino, V, Algeri, D and Auriemma, V (2020) The psychological and social impact of Covid-19: new perspectives of well-being. Frontiers in Psychology 11, 577684.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salari, N, Hosseinian-Far, A, Jalali, R, Vaisi-Raygani, A, Rasoulpoor, S, Mohammadi, M, Rasoulpoor, S and Khaledi-Paveh, B (2020) Prevalence of stress, anxiety, depression among the general population during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Global Health 16(1), 57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salopek-Ziha, D, Hlavati, M, Gvozdanovic, Z, Gasic, M, Placento, H, Jakic, H, Klapan, D and Simic, H (2020) Differences in distress and coping with the COVID-19 stressor in nurses and physicians. Psychiatria Danubina 32, 287–293.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sarndal, CE (1992) Methods for estimating the precision of survey estimates when imputation has been used. Survey Methodology 18, 241–252.Google Scholar
Schirmer, A, Zysset, S, Kotz, SA and Yves Von Cramon, D (2004) Gender differences in the activation of inferior frontal cortex during emotional speech perception. Neuroimage 21(3), 1114–1123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schroeder, U, Hennenlotter, A, Erhard, P, Haslinger, B, Stahl, R, Lange, KW and Ceballos-Baumann, AO (2004) Functional neuroanatomy of perceiving surprised faces. Human Brain Mapping 23, 181–187.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shechter, A, Diaz, F, Moise, N, Anstey, DE, Ye, S, Agarwal, S, Birk, JL, Brodie, D, Cannone, DE, Chang, B, Claassen, J, Cornelius, T, Derby, L, Dong, M, Givens, RC, Hochman, B, Homma, S, Kronish, IM, Lee, SAJ, Manzano, W, Mayer, LES, Mcmurry, CL, Moitra, V, Pham, P, Rabbani, L, Rivera, RR, Schwartz, A, Schwartz, JE, Shapiro, PA, Shaw, K, Sullivan, AM, Vose, C, Wasson, L, Edmondson, D and Abdalla, M (2020) Psychological distress, coping behaviors, and preferences for support among New York healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic. General Hospital Psychiatry 66(4), 1–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skapinakis, P, Bellos, S, Oikonomou, A, Dimitriadis, G, Gkikas, P, Perdikari, E and Mavreas, V (2020) Depression and its relationship with coping strategies and illness perceptions during the COVID-19 lockdown in Greece: a cross-sectional survey of the population. Depression Research and Treatment 3158954, 2020–11.Google ScholarPubMed
Song, X, Fu, W, Liu, X, Luo, Z, Wang, R, Zhou, N, Yan, S and Lv, C (2020) Mental health status of medical staff in emergency departments during the Coronavirus disease 2019 epidemic in China. Brain Behavior and Immunity 88(8), 60–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suryavanshi, N, Kadam, A, Dhumal, G, Nimkar, S, Mave, V, Gupta, A, Cox, SR and Gupte, N (2020) Mental health and quality of life among healthcare professionals during the COVID-19 pandemic in India. Brain and Behavior e01837(11), 1245.Google ScholarPubMed
Tomljenovic, H, Bubic, A and Erceg, N (2020) It just doesn't feel right - the relevance of emotions and intuition for parental vaccine conspiracy beliefs and vaccination uptake. Psychology & Health 35(5), 538–554.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tu, ZH, He, JW and Zhou, N (2020) Sleep quality and mood symptoms in conscripted frontline nurse in Wuhan, China during COVID-19 outbreak: a cross-sectional study. Medicine (Baltimore) 99(26), e20769.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Uscinski, J, Enders, A, Klofstad, C, Seelig, M, Funchion, J, Everett, C, Wuchty, S, Premaratne, K and Murthi, M (2020) Why do people believe COVID-19 conspiracy theories? The Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review 1. April 2020, Volume 1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, Y, Ma, S, Yang, C, Cai, Z, Hu, S, Zhang, B, Tang, S, Bai, H, Guo, X, Wu, J, Du, H, Kang, L, Tan, H, Li, R, Yao, L, Wang, G, Liu, Z (2020) Acute psychological effects of Coronavirus Disease 2019 outbreak among healthcare workers in China: a cross-sectional study. Translational Psychiatry 10(1), 348.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Xing, LQ, Xu, ML, Sun, J, Wang, QX, Ge, DD, Jiang, MM, Du, W and Li, Q (2020) Anxiety and depression in frontline health care workers during the outbreak of Covid-19. International Journal of Social Psychiatry 20764020968119. doi: 10.1177/0020764020968119.Google ScholarPubMed
Xiong, H, Yi, S and Lin, Y (2020) The psychological status and self-efficacy of nurses during COVID-19 outbreak: a cross-sectional survey. Inquiry 57(41), 46958020957114.Google ScholarPubMed
Zhang, SX, Liu, J, Afshar Jahanshahi, A, Nawaser, K, Yousefi, A, Li, J and Sun, S (2020) At the height of the storm: healthcare staff’s health conditions and job satisfaction and their associated predictors during the epidemic peak of COVID-19. Brain Behavior and Immunity 87(1), 144–146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed