Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dzt6s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T07:55:56.918Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Future aircraft concepts and design methods

Part of: The AJ Special Rotorcraft Collection Sustainable Aerospace Written Paper Prizes 2023

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 December 2021

Robert A. McDonald ,
Brian J. German ,
T. Takahashi ,
C. Bil Open the ORCID record for C. Bil [Opens in a new window] ,
W. Anemaat ,
A. Chaput ,
R. Vos  and
N. Harrison
Robert A. McDonald
Affiliation:
Aviation Consultant, San Luis Obispo, CA, USA
Brian J. German
Affiliation:
Center for Urban and Regional Air Mobility, Georgia Tech, Atlanta, GA, USA
T. Takahashi
Affiliation:
Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
C. Bil*
Affiliation:
RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
W. Anemaat
Affiliation:
DARcorporation, Lawrence, KS, USA
A. Chaput
Affiliation:
University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
R. Vos
Affiliation:
Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
N. Harrison
Affiliation:
Boeing Research & Technology, Huntington Beach, CA, USA
*
E-mail: cees.bil@rmit.edu.au
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

With an annual growth in travel demand of about 5% globally, managing the environmental impact is a challenge. In 2019, the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) issued emission reduction targets, including well-to-wake greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduced at least 50% from 2005 levels by 2050. This discusses several technologies from an aircraft design perspective that can contribute to achieving these targets. One thing is certain: aircraft will look different in the future. The Transonic Truss-Braced Wing and Flying V configurations are promising significant efficiency improvements over conventional configurations. Electric propulsion, in various architectures, is becoming a feasible option for general aviation and commuter aircraft. It will be a growing field of aviation with zero-emissions flight and opportunities for special missions. Lastly, this paper discusses methods and design processes that include all relevant disciplines to ensure that the aircraft is optimised as a complete system. While empirical methods are essential for initial design, Multidisciplinary Design Optimisation (MDO) incorporates models and simulations integrated in an optimisation environment to capture critical trade-offs. Concurrent design places domain experts in one site to facilitate collaboration, interaction, and joint decision-making, and to ensure all disciplines are equally considered. It is supported by a Collaborative Design Facility (CDF), an information technology facility with connected hardware and software tools for design analysis.

Keywords

Aircraft configurationsDesign methodsElectric propulsionSustainabilityEmission reduction
Type
Survey Paper
Information
The Aeronautical Journal , Volume 126 , Special Issue 1295: This special issue marks the 125th anniversary of The Aeronautical Journal , January 2022 , pp. 92 - 124
Check for updates
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Royal Aeronautical Society

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Lee, D.S. et al., The contribution of global aviation to anthropogenic climate forcing for 2000 to 2018, Atmospheric Environment, Volume 244, 1 January 2021, Elsevier.Google Scholar
International Civil Aviation Organisation, ICAO 2019 Environmental Outlook, 2019.Google Scholar
TU Delft – NLR, Towards a Sustainable Air Transportation System, white paper, January 2021.Google Scholar
Pfenninger, W. Laminar Flow Control Laminarization, Special Course on Concepts for Drag Reduction”, AGARD Report 654, Von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics, Rhode-St-Genese, Belgium, 1977.Google Scholar
Gern, F.H., Gundlach, J.F., Ko, A., Naghshineh-Pour, A., Sulaeman, E., Tetrault, P.-A., Grossman, B., Kapania, R.K., Mason, W.H. and Schetz, J.A. Multidisciplinary Design Optimization of a Transonic Commercial Transport with a Strut-Braced Wing, Paper 1999-01-5621, 1999 World Aviation Conference, October 19–21, 1999, San Francisco, CA.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrison, N.A., Beyar, M.D., Dickey, E.D., Hoffman, K., Gatlin, G.M. and Viken, S.A. Development of an Efficient Mach=0.80 Transonic Truss-Braced Wing Aircraft, AIAA 2020-0011, AIAA SciTech 2020 Forum, 6–10 January 2020, Orlando, FL.Google Scholar
Oosterom, W. Flying-V Family Design, Delft University of Technology, MSc thesis, Delft, 2021.Google Scholar
Isgro, F. Fuselage Design Studies to Improve Boarding Performance of Novel Passenger Aircraft, MSc thesis, Delft University of Technology, 2020.Google Scholar
Faggiano, F., Vos, R., Baan, M. and van Dijk, R. Aerodynamic Design of a Flying-V Aircraft, in Proceedings of 17th AIAA Aviation Technology, Integration, and Operations Conference: 5–9 June 2017, Denver, CO.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palermo, M. and Vos, R. Experimental Aerodynamic Analysis of a 4.6%-Scale Flying-V Subsonic Transport, in Proceedings of AIAA Scitech 2020 Forum: 6–10 January 2020, Orlando, FL.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Viet, R. Analysis of the flight characteristics of a highly swept cranked flying wing by means of an experimental test, MSc thesis, Delft University of Technology, Delft, 2019.Google Scholar
Cappuyns, T. Handling Qualities of a Flying V Configuration, MSc thesis, Delft University of Technology, Delft, 2019.Google Scholar
Garcia, R., Vos, R. and de Visser, C. Aerodynamic Model Identification of the Flying V from Wind Tunnel Data, in Proceedings of AIAA AVIATION Forum, 15–19 June, 2020, Virtual Event.Google Scholar
Claeys, M. Flying V and Reference Aircraft Structural Analysis and Mass Comparison, MSc thesis, Delft University of Technology, Delft, 2018.Google Scholar
Van der Schaft, L. Development, Model Generation and Analysis of a Flying V Structure Concept, MSc thesis, Delft University of Technology, Delft, 2017.Google Scholar
Bourget, G. The effect of landing gear implementation on Flying V aerodynamics, stability, and controllability. MSc thesis, Delft University of Technology, Delft, 2020.Google Scholar
Van der Pluijm, R. Cockpit Design and Integration into the Flying V, MSc thesis, Delft University of Technology, Delft, 2021.Google Scholar
Ziegler, M.S. and Trancik, J.E. Re-examining rates of lithium-ion battery technology improvement and cost decline, Energy Environ. Sci., 2021, (4).Google Scholar
Boeing Commercial Airplanes, 737 MAX Airplane Characteristics for Airport Planning, February 2021.Google Scholar
Duffy, M., Sevier, A., Hupp, R., Perdomo, E. and Wakayama, S. Propulsion Scaling Methods in the Era of Electric Flight, AIAA Propulsion and Energy Forum, Cincinnati, OH, July 9–11, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ginn, S. Spiral Development of Electrified Aircraft Propulsion from Ground to Flight, NASA Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate, November 16, 2016, URL: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20170009875/downloads/20170009875.pdf, accessed August 15, 2021.Google Scholar
Wiederhold, A. Look, Up in the Sky…It’s a Bird…It’s a Plane… It’s a…Nano Hummingbird: A Micro Air Vehicle that Exceeded Expectations, AeroVironment, www.avinc.com, 2021.Google Scholar
Chen, Y., Wang, H., Helbling, E.F., Jafferis, N.T., Zufferey, R., Ong, A., Ma, K., Gravish, N., Chirarattananon, P., Kovac, M. and Wood, R.J. A biologically inspired, flapping-wing, hybrid aerial-aquatic microrobot, Science Robotics, 25 Oct 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Industry Standard, ANSI/NEMA MG 1-2016 Motors and Generators, National Electrical Manufacturers Association, Rosslyn, VA, USA, 2016.Google Scholar
Yin, F. and Rao, A. Performance analysis of an aero engine with inter-stage turbine burner, Aeronaut. J., 2017, 121, (1245), pp 1605–1626. doi: 10.1017/aer.2017.93 Google Scholar
Trevithick, J. Bell’s Electrically-Powered Tail Rotor Tech Breaks Cover And It Could Be a Game-Changer, The Drive, Feb. 20, 2020, URL: https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/32304/bells-electrically-powered-tail-rotor-tech-breaks-cover-and- it-could-be-a-game-changer, accessed August 9, 2021.Google Scholar
Head, E. You have questions about Bell’s electric tail rotor. We have answers, Vertical, March 2, 2020, URL: https://verticalmag.com/news/bell-electric-tail-rotor-edat-questions/, accessed August 9, 2021.Google Scholar
Finger, F.D., Braun, C. and Bil, C. Impact of Battery Performance on the Initial Sizing of Hybrid-Electric General Aviation Aircraft, J. Aerosp. Eng., 2020, 33, (3).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
EASA certifies electric aircraft, first type certification for fully electric plane world-wide, June 10, 2020, URL: https://www.easa.europa.eu/newsroom-and-events/news/easa-certifies-electric-aircraft-first-type-certification-fully-electric, accessed August 15, 2021.Google Scholar
Pipistrel First to Certify Electric Airplane: EASA Grants Velis Electro Type Certificate, AOPA, June 17, 2020, URL: https://www.aopa.org/news-and-media/all-news/2020/june/17/pipistrel-first-to-certify-electric-airplane, accessed August 15, 2021.Google Scholar
McDonald, R.A. Establishing Mission Requirements Based on Consideration of Aircraft Operations, J. Aircr., 2013, 50 (3), May–June.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stoll, A.M. and Mikic, G.V. Design Studies of Thin-Haul Commuter Aircraft with Distributed Electric Propulsion, AIAA Aviation Forum, Washington, DC, June 13–17, 2016.Google Scholar
RQ-11 Raven Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, Army Technology, URL: https://www.army-technology.com/projects/rq-11-raven/, accessed August 15, 2021.Google Scholar
High-Altitude Pseudo-Satellite, URL: https://www.aurora.aero/odysseus-high-altitude-pseudo-satellite-haps/, Aurora Flight Sciences, accessed August 9, 2021.Google Scholar
HAPSMobile’s Sunglider Succeeds in Stratospheric Test Flight, HAPSMobile, October 8, 2020, URL: https://www.hapsmobile.com/en/news/press/2020/20201008_01/, accessed August 9, 2021.Google Scholar
The Airbus Zephyr, Solar High Altitude Platform Station (HAPS) concludes a successful new test flight campaign in Arizona, USA, Airbus, December 3, 2020, URL: https://www.airbus.com/newsroom/press-releases/en/2020/12/the-airbus-zephyr- solar-high-altitude-platform-station-haps-concludes-a-successful-new-test-flight-campaign-in-arizona-usa.html, accessed August 15, 2021.Google Scholar
Wei-Haas, M. Inside the First Solar-Powered Flight Around the World, Smithsonian Magazine, January 31, 2018, URL: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/inside-first-solar-powered-flight-around-world-180968000/, accessed August 15, 2021.Google Scholar
Part 107—Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems, Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (eCFR), https://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?SID=795f3720e106147f41212aef340f0d11&mc=true&node=pt14.2.107&rgn=div5, accessed August 9, 2021.Google Scholar
Holden, J. and Goel, N. Uber Elevate: Fast-Forwarding to a Future of On-Demand Urban Air Transportation, Uber Elevate, September 2016.Google Scholar
Beresnevicius, R. Defining urban travel in 1950s: the story of New York Airways, Aerotime Hub, July 8, 2019, URL: https://www.aerotime.aero/22811-new-york-airways-story, accessed August 15, 2021.Google Scholar
Hirschberg, M. Electric VTOL Wheel of Fortune, Vertiflight, March/April 2017, URL: https://vtol.org/news/electric-vtol-wheel-of-fortune, accessed August 9, 2021.Google Scholar
Mars Helicopter Tech Demo, NASA, URL: https://mars.nasa.gov/technology/helicopter/#Overview, accessed August 15, 2021.Google Scholar
Sharp, T. Mars’ Atmosphere: Composition, Climate & Weather, Space.com, September 11, 2017, URL: https://www.space.com/16903-mars-atmosphere-climate-weather.html, accessed August 15, 2021.Google Scholar
Brandt, S.A. et al., The Value of Semi-Empirical Analysis Models in Aircraft Design, AIAA 2015-2486, 16th AIAA/ISSMO Multidisciplinary Analysis and Optimization Conference, 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carty, A., An Approach to Multidisciplinary Design, Analysis & Optimization for Rapid Conceptual Design, AIAA 2002-5438, 2002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, K.D. Aerospace Vehicle Design: Volume I Aircraft Design, Johnson Publishing, 1963.Google Scholar
Roskam, J. Airplane Design Part I - VIII, Design, Analysis and Research Corporation, 1989.Google Scholar
Raymer, D. Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach, AIAA Education Series, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nicolai, L. and Carichner, G. Fundamentals of Aircraft and Airship Design – Vol. 1, AIAA Education Series, 2010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Torenbeek, E. Synthesis of Subsonic Airplane Design, Springer-Verlag, 1982.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stinton, D. Design of the Aeroplane, 2nd Edition, Wiley & Sons, 2001.Google Scholar
Gundlach, J. Civil and Commercial Unmanned Aircraft Systems, AIAA Education Series, 2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chaput, A. and Mark, H. Systems Engineering Design - An Educational Imperative for Future Aerospace Development, AIAA 2013-4418, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chaput, A. Airframe Weight Control - An F-35/JSF Approach, SAE 64th Annual International Conference on Mass Properties Engineering, 2005.Google Scholar
Boren, H.E. DAPCA - A Computer Program for Determining Aircraft Development and Production Costs, RAND Corporation, 1967.Google Scholar
Takahashi, T.T. Aircraft Performance & Sizing, Vol. I: Fundamentals of Aircraft Performance, Momentum Press, 2016, New York, NY. 200 pages. ISBN-13: 978-1606506837.Google Scholar
Vandenbrande, J.H., Grandine, T.A. and Hogan, T. The Search for the Perfect Body: Shape Control for Multidisciplinary Design Optimization, AIAA 2006-928, 2006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hays, A.P. Spreadsheet Methods for Aircraft Design, AIAA 1989-2059, 1989.Google Scholar
Loftin, L.K. Subsonic Aircraft: Evolution and the Matching of Size to Performance, NASA RP 1060, Aug. 1980 Google Scholar
Morris, E., Williams, M., Ahlberg, J.B., Chappell, R., McNamara, R.S. and Glass, P. The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara, Sony Pictures Classics (Film), 2004.Google Scholar
Anon. Operational Research in the British Army 1939–1945, October 1947, Report C67/3/4/48, UK National Archives file WO291/1301.Google Scholar
Gannon, M. Black May: The Epic Story of the Allies’ Defeat of the German U-Boats in May 1943, Naval Institute Press, 2010. ISBN-13: 978-1591143048Google Scholar
Schmit, L.A. Structural Design by Systematic Synthesis, 2nd Conference on Electronic Computation, ASCE, pp. 105–132, 1960.Google Scholar
Vanderplaats, G.N., Multidiscipline Design Optimization, VR&D, ISBN-13978-0944956045, 2007.Google Scholar
Tolson, R.H. and Sobieszczanski-Sobieski, J. Multidisciplinary analysis and synthesis - Needs and opportunities, AIAA 85-0584, DOI: 10.2514/6.1985-584, 1985.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grossman, B., Haftka, R., Kao, P.-J., Polen, D.M., Rais-Rohani, M. and Sobieszczanski-Sobieski, J. Integrated Aerodynamic-Structural Design of a Transport Wing, AIAA 89-2129, DOI: 10.2514/6.1989-2129, 1989.Google Scholar
Herendeen, D.L., Hoesly, R.L., Johnson, E.H. and Venkayya, V.B. ASTROS – An Advance Software Environment for Automated Design, AIAA 86-856. DOI: 10.2514/6.1986-856, 1986.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martins, J.R.R.A. Perspectives on Aerodynamic Design Optimization, AIAA SciTech Forum. AIAA 2020-0043, 2020.Google Scholar
Vanderplaats, G.N. Very Large Scale Continuous and Discrete Variable Optimization, 10th AIAA/USAF/NASA/ISSMO Symposium on Multidisciplinary Analysis and Optimization, AIAA 2004-4458, 2004. https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2004-4458 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mavris, D.N., Bandte, O. and DeLaurentis, D.A. Robust Design Simulation: A Probabilistic Approach to Multidisciplinary Design, AIAA J. Airc., 1999, 36, (1).Google Scholar
Raymer, D.P. RDS – A PC-based Aircraft Design, Sizing and Performance System, AIAA 92-4226, https://doi.org/10.2514/6.1992-4226 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCullers, L.A. FLOPS User’s Guide, Release. 5.81, NASA Langley Research Center.Google Scholar
Roskam, J. and Anemaat, W.A. Advanced Aircraft Analysis (Brochure) DAR Corporation, https://www.darcorp.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/AAA-Brochure-1.pdf Google Scholar
Malone, B. and Woyak, S. An object-oriented analysis and optimization control environment for the conceptual design of aircraft, AIAA 95-3862, doi: 10.2514/6.1995-3862, 1995.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gray, J., Moore, K.T. and Naylor, B.A. OpenMDAO: An Open Source Framework for Multidisciplinary Analysis and Optimization, AIAA 2010-9101, doi: 10.2514/6.2010-9101, 2010.Google Scholar
Carty, A. and Davies, C. Fusion of Aircraft Synthesis and Computer Aided Design, AIAA 2004-4433, 2004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aronstein, D.C. and Schueler, K.L. Two Supersonic Business Aircraft Conceptual Designs: With and Without Sonic Boom Constraint, AIAA J. Airc., 2005, 42, (3), May–June. https://doi.org/10.2514/1.7578 Google Scholar
Cunnington, G.R., Takahashi, T.T. and Bays, L.V. Incorporation of Aerothermodynamic Analysis Tools into the Multidisciplinary Conceptual Design Process, AIAA 2007-406, 2007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hecken, T. et al., Conceptual Design Studies of “Boosted Turbofan” Configuration for short range, AIAA 2020-0506, 2020. https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2020-0506 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneegans, A. Systems Architecture Design - A Software Development for the JTI Clean Sky Green Regional Aircraft Program, AIAA 2011-6817, 2011. https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2011-6817 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Magee, T.E., et al. “System-Level Experimental Validations for Supersonic Commercial Transport Aircraft Entering Service in the 2018–2020 Time Period: Phase I Final Report,” NASA CR-2013-217797, January 2013.Google Scholar
Schutte, J. and Mavris, D.N. “Evaluation of N+2 Technologies and Advanced Vehicle Concepts“ AIAA 2015-0514, 2015. https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2015-0514 Google Scholar
Davies, C., Stelmack, M., Zink, P.S., De La Garza, A. and Flick, P. High Fidelity MDO Process Development and Application to Fighter Strike Conceptual Design, AIAA 2012-5490, 2012. https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2012-5490 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alanyak, E.J. and Allison, D.L. Multi-Parameter Performance Evaluation, the Next Step in Conceptual Design Concept Assessment, AIAA 2015-0648, 2015. https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2015-0648 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allison, D.L., Morris, C.C., Schetz, J.A., Kapania, R.K., Watson, L.T. and Deaton, J.D. Development of a Multidisciplinary Design Optimization Framework for an Efficient Supersonic Air Vehicle, Adv. Aircr. Spacecr. Sci., 2015, 2, (1), pp 17–44.Google Scholar
Fortescue, P., Swinerd, G. and Stark, J. Spacecraft Systems Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2011.Google Scholar
Bandecchi, M., Melton, B. and Ongaro, F. Concurrent Engineering Applied to Space Mission Assessment and Design, ESA Bulletin No.99, September 1999, pages:34–40.Google Scholar
Aguilar, J.A., Dawdy, A.B. and Law, G.W. The Aerospace Corporation’s Concept Design Center. 1998.Google Scholar
Lawson, M. and Karandikar, H.M. A Survey of Concurrent Engineering, Concurr. Eng. Res. Appl., 1994, (2), pp 1–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, J.L. Concurrent Engineering in the Jet Propulsion Laboratory Project Design Center, 98AMTC-83.Google Scholar
Bandecchi, M., Melton, B., Gardini, B. and Ongaro, F. The ESA/ESTEC Concurrent Design Facility, Proc. EuSEC 2000, pp 329–336.Google Scholar
Braukhane, A. The DLR Concurrent Engineering Facility (CEF), DLR Institute of Space Systems, January 2011. Online http://www.dlr.de/irs/Portaldata/46/Resources/dokumente/sara/CEF_presentation_2011_v1.pdf, viewed 30 October 2015.Google Scholar
Koning, H.P.de MBSE and the ESA Concurrent Design Facility, INCOSE IW12/MBSE Workshop, 21–22 January 2012, Jacksonville, USA.Google Scholar
Fan, L., Zhu, H., Bok, S.H. and Kumar, A.S. A Framework for Distributed Collaborative Engineering on Grids, Comput. Aided Des. Appl.s, 2007, 4, (1–4), pp 353–362.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watkins, E.R., McArdle, M., Leonard, T. and Surridge, M. Cross-middleware Interoperability in Distributed Concurrent Engineering, Proceedings of the 3rd IEEE International Conference on e-Science and Grid Computing, 10–13 December 2007, Bangalore, India.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boöhnke, D., Nagel, B. and Gollnick, V. An Approach to Multi-fidelity in Conceptual Aircraft Design in Distributed Design Environments, Proceedings of the IEEE Aerospace Conference 2011, 5–12 March 2011, Big Sky, USA.CrossRefGoogle Scholar