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1970s Drought, State Crisis, and Opportunities for Transnational River Development in the Senegal Basin

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 December 2021

Rebecca E. Wall Open the ORCID record for Rebecca E. Wall [Opens in a new window]
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Abstract

During the early 1970s, the Sahel suffered from drought and famine. Previous research has emphasized how these factors weakened West African states. The drought, however, provided an opportunity for a transnational river organization in the Senegal River basin (the OMVS) to obtain financing for an integrated development program. Wall shows how the OMVS leveraged concern about famine to obtain funding. She uses digital text analysis to demonstrate institutional priorities shifting to focus on agriculture. This combination of document analysis with digital methods demonstrates how famine strengthened a multi-state organization, requiring a revision of how this event affected African political capacity.

Résumé

Résumé

Au début des années 1970, le Sahel a été touché par une sécheresse historique. Les recherches se sont jusqu’ alors concentrées sur l’affaiblissement des États de l’Afrique de l’Ouest résultant de cette sécheresse. Cette sécheresse a cependant été l’occasion pour une organisation fluviale transnationale (l’O.M.V.S.) d’obtenir un financement pour un programme de développement intégré dans le bassin versant du fleuve Sénégal. Wall montre comment l’O.M.V.S. a su saisir l’inquiétude de la communauté internationale quant à la famine pour obtenir ce financement. Par ailleurs elle utilise des outils numériques d’analyse de texte pour mettre en lumière la mutation des priorités institutionnelles vers l’agriculture. En alliant analyse approfondie des sources et méthodes numériques, notre article retrace l’opportunité que la famine a representé pour une organisation transnationale donnée, invitant à porter un autre regard sur l’impact de cet évènement historique sur sur les capacités d’actions politiques en Afrique de l’ouest.

Resumo

Resumo

No início da década de 1970, o Sahel atravessou um período de seca e de fome. No passado, os estudos centraram-se no modo com estes fatores enfraqueceram os estados da África ocidental. A seca, porém, criou uma oportunidade para que uma organização fluvial transnacional, situada na bacia do Rio Senegal (a OMVS), pudesse obter financiamento para um programa de desenvolvimento integrado. Wall demonstra que a OMVS aproveitou as preocupações com a fome para obter financiamento. A autora recorre à análise digital de texto para revelar que as prioridades institucionais se deslocaram para a agricultura. Através desta combinação de análise documental e de métodos digitais, demonstra que a fome fortaleceu uma organização multinacional, impondo que se reveja o modo como isso afetou a capacidade política africana.

Keywords

West AfricaSahelfaminetransnationalismdigital historydevelopment
Type
Article
Information
African Studies Review , Volume 64 , Issue 4 , December 2021 , pp. 776 - 802
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the African Studies Association

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References

References

Archives Nationales du Mali, Bamako [ANM]Google Scholar
Archives Nationales du Sénégal, Dakar [ANS]Google Scholar
Organistion Pour la Mise en Valuer du Fleuve Sénégal Centre de Documentation et Archives, Saint Louis, Senegal [OMVS-CDA]Google Scholar
Société de Gestion et de l’Énergie de Manantali, Bamako [SOGEM]Google Scholar
Agnew, C.T, and Chappell, A.. 1999. “Drought in the Sahel.” GeoJournal 48: 299–311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, David, et al. n.d. “Topic Modeling Official Secrecy.” Columbia History Lab Website. Undated. Accessed May 20, 2019. http://historylab.org/images/presentations/Topic_Modeling_OS.pdf.Google Scholar
Arieff, Alexis. 2009. “Still Standing: Neighborhood Wars and Political Stability in Guinea.” Journal of Modern African Studies 47 (3): 331–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bélime, Émile. 1922. “Report on the Development Possibilities Offered by the Senegal River Valley.” OMVS-CDA 31.Google Scholar
Bélime, Émile. 1934. “Note sur les Études Générales à Entreprendre en vue de l’Aménagement des Vallées du Sénégal et du Niger Inferieur.” Archives Nationales du Mali [ANM] 1R-6.Google Scholar
Bernard, Claire. 1995. Les aménagements du bassin du fleuve Sénégal pendant la colonisation.1850–1960. Ph.D. diss., Paris VII.Google Scholar
Blevins, Cameron. 2014. “Space, Nation, and the Triumph of Region: A View of the World from Houston.” Journal of American History 101 (1): 122–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boinet, Edouard. 2013. Hydropolitique du fleuve Sénégal: limites et perspectives d’un modèle de cooperation. Paris: Harmattan.Google Scholar
Camara, Mohamed Saliou. 2010. The Development of a Trans-National Region in West Africa: Transcending the Politics of Sovereign Nation States. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press.Google Scholar
Chikowore, Godfrey. 2002. “The African Union and the Destiny of Africahood: The Southern Africa Development Community and Neo-colonial Challenges to Pan-Africanism.” African Journal of International Affairs 5 (1/2): 40–72.Google Scholar
Clark, Andrew F. 1995. “The Environmental Decline and Ecological Response in the Upper Senegal Valley, West Africa, from the Late Nineteenth Century to World War I.” Journal of African History 36 (2): 197–281.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conklin, Alice. 1997. Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa,1895–1930. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Cooper, Frederick. 2014. Citizenship Between Empire and Nation. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Dieng, Amady Aly. 1996. “Le Sénégal au-delà de l’ajustement structurel: pour une stratégie de développement fondée sur des forces populaires.” Africa Development/Afrique et Développement 21 (2/3): 43–65.Google Scholar
Diop, Aladji Madior. 2016. “Les politiques de développement élaborées par la Banque mondiale à l’intention des pays de l’hémisphère sud de 1980 à nos jours: origines, variantes et implications.” Africa Development/Afrique et Dévloppement 41 (1): 159–89.Google Scholar
Domingues, Daniel B. da Silva. 2017. The Atlantic Slave Trade from West Central Africa, 1780–1867. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eltis, David, and Richardson, David, eds. 2008. Extending the Frontiers: Essays on the New Transatlantic Slave Trade Database. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fall, Ely. 1984. “L’Intégration Économique de l’Afrique de l’Ouest Confrontée aux Solides Liens de Dépendance des États Africains de l’Exterieur.” Africa Development/Afrique de Développement 9 (1): 40–55.Google Scholar
Foltz, William J. 1965. From French West Africa to the Mali Federation. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Fonchingong, Tongie N. 2005. “The State and Development in Africa.” African Journal of International Affairs 8 (1/2): 1–21.Google Scholar
Founou-Tchuigoua, Bernand, and Zarour, Charbel. 1986. “Bilan d’une Decennie de la Coopération Économique Arabo-Africaine: Quelques Point de Repères Analytiques.” Africa Development/ Afrique et Développement 11 (2/3): 31–68.Google Scholar
Funk, Kellen, and Mullen, Lincoln A.. 2018. “The Spine of American Law: Digital Text Analysis and U.S. Legal Practice.” American Historical Review 123 (1): 132–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gautron, Jean Claude. 1967. “L’aménagement du bassin du fleuve Sénégal.” Annuaire Français de Droit International 13: 690–702.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grimmer, Justin, and Stewart, Brandon M.. 2013. “Text as Data: The Promise and Pitfalls of Automatic Content Analysis Methods for Political Texts.” Political Analysis 21 (3): 267–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grubert, Emily, and Algee-Hewitt, Mark. 2017. “Villainous or Valiant? Depictions of Oil and Coal in American Fiction and Nonfiction Narratives.” Energy Research and Social Science 31: 100–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guldi, Jo, and Williams, Benjamin. 2018. “Synthesis and Large-Scale Textual Corpora: A Nested Topic Model of Britain’s Debates over Landed Property in the Nineteenth Century.” Current Research in Digital History 1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hazlewood, Arthur. 1979. “The End of the East African Community: What are the Lessons for Regional Integration Schemes?” JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies 18 (1): 40–58.Google Scholar
Hicks, Raymond P., and Connelly, Matthew. 2018. “Underfunding the State Department Could Hurt U.S. Exports—and U.S. Companies.” Washington Post. Feb. 14, 2018.Google Scholar
Kasaija, Pa. 2004. “Regional Integration: A Political Federation of the East African Countries?” African Journal of International Affairs 7: 1–2.Google Scholar
Kazah-Toure, Toure. 2006. “Central Challenges Confronting the African State: Rethinking its Role in Development.” African Journal of International Affairs 9 (1/2): 41–59.Google Scholar
Laver, Michael, and Garry, John. 2000. “Estimating Policy Positions from Political Texts.” American Journal of Political Science 44 (3): 619–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, Jeffrey D., Robinson, Sherman, and Thierfelder, Karen. 2003. “Free Trade and the SADC Economies.” Journal of African Economics 12 (2): 156–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lovejoy, Henry B., et al. 2019. “Redefining African Regions for Linking Open-Source Data.” History in Africa 46: 5–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lumumba-Kasongo, Tukumbi. 2002. “Reconceptualizing the State as the Leading Agent of Development in the Context of Globalization in Africa.” African Journal of Political Science/Revue Africaine de Science Politique 7 (1): 71–108.Google Scholar
Mann, Gregory. 2014. From Empires to NGOs in the West African Sahel: The Road to Nongovernmentality. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Merzoug, Mohamed Salem. 2005. L’eau, l’Afrique, la solidarité: une nouvelle espérance: l’ONVS, un cas de développement solidaire. Paris: Présence Africaine.Google Scholar
Meublat, Guy, and Ingles, Jérôme. 1997. “L’Eternel Retour d’une Politique de Grands Projets: L’Aménagement du Fleuve Sénégal en Perspective.” In Régards Intérdiciplinaires sur les Politiques de Développement, edited by Baré, Jean-François, 163–99. Paris: L’Harmattan.Google Scholar
Mugomba, Agrippah T. 1978. “Regional Organisations and the African Underdevelopment: The Collapse of the East African Community.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 16 (2): 261–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ndiaye, Guédel. 1980. L’échec de la Fédération du Mali. Dakar: Les Nouvelles éditions Africaines, 1980.Google Scholar
Nye, Joseph S. 1963. “East African Economic Integration.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 4 (1): 475–502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Brien, David. 2000. “The Search for Subsidarity: The UN, African Regional Organizations and Humanitarian Action.” International Peacekeeping 7 (3): 57–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Connor, Brendan T. 2011. “Be careful with dictionary-based text analysis.” AI and Social Science Webpage. Published Oct. 5, 2011. Accessed May 15, 2019. https://brenocon.com/blog/2011/10/be-careful-with-dictionary-based-text-analysis/ Google Scholar
Rempel, Ruth. 2008. “Periodizing African Development History.” African Economic History 36 (1): 125–58.Google Scholar
Sarraut, Albert. 1923. La mise en valeur des colonies françaises. Paris: Payot & cie.Google Scholar
Savenije, Hubert H. G., and van der Zaag, Pieter. 2000. “Conceptual Framework for the Management of Shared River Basins; with Special Reference to the SADC and EU.” Water Policy 2: 9–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Searing, James F. 1993. West African Slavery and Atlantic Commerce: The Senegal River Valley,1700–1860. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spirling, Arthur. 2012. “U.S. Treaty Making with American Indians: Institutional Change and Relative Power, 1784–1991.” American Journal of Political Science 56 (1): 84–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sterling, Claire. May 1974. “The Making of the Sub-Saharan Wasteland.” Atlantic Monthly. Google Scholar
Tiffert, Glenn D. 2019. “Peering down the Memory Hole: Censorship, Digitization, and the Fragility of Our Knowledge Base.” American Historical Review 124 (2): 550–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vaitsos, Constantine V. 1978. “Crisis in Regional Economic Cooperation (integration) among Developing Countries: A Survey.” World Development 6 (6): 719–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webb, James L. A. 1995. Desert Frontier: Ecological and Economic Change Along the Western Sahel. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Weldesellassie, K. Isaac. 2011. “IGAD as an International Organization, Its Institutional Development and Shortcomings.” Journal of African Law 55 (1): 1–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkens, Matthew. 2013. “The Geographic Imagination of Civil War-Era American Fiction.” American Literary History 25 (4): 803–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yansané, Aguibou Y., ed. 1996. Prospects for Recovery and Sustainable Development in Africa. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
Zarour, Charbel. 1986a. “La Coopération Arabo-Sénégalaise.” Africa Development/Afrique et Dévoloppement 11 (2/3): 261–87.Google Scholar
Zarour, Charbel. 1986b. “Mechanismes Financièrs de la Coopération Arabo-Africaine,” Africa Development/Afrique et Développement 11 (2/3): 89–136.Google Scholar
Zeng, Ning. 2003. “Drought in the Sahel.” Science 302: 999–1000.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Archives Nationales du Mali, Bamako [ANM]Google Scholar
Archives Nationales du Sénégal, Dakar [ANS]Google Scholar
Organistion Pour la Mise en Valuer du Fleuve Sénégal Centre de Documentation et Archives, Saint Louis, Senegal [OMVS-CDA]Google Scholar
Société de Gestion et de l’Énergie de Manantali, Bamako [SOGEM]Google Scholar
Agnew, C.T, and Chappell, A.. 1999. “Drought in the Sahel.” GeoJournal 48: 299–311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, David, et al. n.d. “Topic Modeling Official Secrecy.” Columbia History Lab Website. Undated. Accessed May 20, 2019. http://historylab.org/images/presentations/Topic_Modeling_OS.pdf.Google Scholar
Arieff, Alexis. 2009. “Still Standing: Neighborhood Wars and Political Stability in Guinea.” Journal of Modern African Studies 47 (3): 331–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bélime, Émile. 1922. “Report on the Development Possibilities Offered by the Senegal River Valley.” OMVS-CDA 31.Google Scholar
Bélime, Émile. 1934. “Note sur les Études Générales à Entreprendre en vue de l’Aménagement des Vallées du Sénégal et du Niger Inferieur.” Archives Nationales du Mali [ANM] 1R-6.Google Scholar
Bernard, Claire. 1995. Les aménagements du bassin du fleuve Sénégal pendant la colonisation.1850–1960. Ph.D. diss., Paris VII.Google Scholar
Blevins, Cameron. 2014. “Space, Nation, and the Triumph of Region: A View of the World from Houston.” Journal of American History 101 (1): 122–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boinet, Edouard. 2013. Hydropolitique du fleuve Sénégal: limites et perspectives d’un modèle de cooperation. Paris: Harmattan.Google Scholar
Camara, Mohamed Saliou. 2010. The Development of a Trans-National Region in West Africa: Transcending the Politics of Sovereign Nation States. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press.Google Scholar
Chikowore, Godfrey. 2002. “The African Union and the Destiny of Africahood: The Southern Africa Development Community and Neo-colonial Challenges to Pan-Africanism.” African Journal of International Affairs 5 (1/2): 40–72.Google Scholar
Clark, Andrew F. 1995. “The Environmental Decline and Ecological Response in the Upper Senegal Valley, West Africa, from the Late Nineteenth Century to World War I.” Journal of African History 36 (2): 197–281.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conklin, Alice. 1997. Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa,1895–1930. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Cooper, Frederick. 2014. Citizenship Between Empire and Nation. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Dieng, Amady Aly. 1996. “Le Sénégal au-delà de l’ajustement structurel: pour une stratégie de développement fondée sur des forces populaires.” Africa Development/Afrique et Développement 21 (2/3): 43–65.Google Scholar
Diop, Aladji Madior. 2016. “Les politiques de développement élaborées par la Banque mondiale à l’intention des pays de l’hémisphère sud de 1980 à nos jours: origines, variantes et implications.” Africa Development/Afrique et Dévloppement 41 (1): 159–89.Google Scholar
Domingues, Daniel B. da Silva. 2017. The Atlantic Slave Trade from West Central Africa, 1780–1867. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eltis, David, and Richardson, David, eds. 2008. Extending the Frontiers: Essays on the New Transatlantic Slave Trade Database. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fall, Ely. 1984. “L’Intégration Économique de l’Afrique de l’Ouest Confrontée aux Solides Liens de Dépendance des États Africains de l’Exterieur.” Africa Development/Afrique de Développement 9 (1): 40–55.Google Scholar
Foltz, William J. 1965. From French West Africa to the Mali Federation. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Fonchingong, Tongie N. 2005. “The State and Development in Africa.” African Journal of International Affairs 8 (1/2): 1–21.Google Scholar
Founou-Tchuigoua, Bernand, and Zarour, Charbel. 1986. “Bilan d’une Decennie de la Coopération Économique Arabo-Africaine: Quelques Point de Repères Analytiques.” Africa Development/ Afrique et Développement 11 (2/3): 31–68.Google Scholar
Funk, Kellen, and Mullen, Lincoln A.. 2018. “The Spine of American Law: Digital Text Analysis and U.S. Legal Practice.” American Historical Review 123 (1): 132–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gautron, Jean Claude. 1967. “L’aménagement du bassin du fleuve Sénégal.” Annuaire Français de Droit International 13: 690–702.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grimmer, Justin, and Stewart, Brandon M.. 2013. “Text as Data: The Promise and Pitfalls of Automatic Content Analysis Methods for Political Texts.” Political Analysis 21 (3): 267–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grubert, Emily, and Algee-Hewitt, Mark. 2017. “Villainous or Valiant? Depictions of Oil and Coal in American Fiction and Nonfiction Narratives.” Energy Research and Social Science 31: 100–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guldi, Jo, and Williams, Benjamin. 2018. “Synthesis and Large-Scale Textual Corpora: A Nested Topic Model of Britain’s Debates over Landed Property in the Nineteenth Century.” Current Research in Digital History 1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hazlewood, Arthur. 1979. “The End of the East African Community: What are the Lessons for Regional Integration Schemes?” JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies 18 (1): 40–58.Google Scholar
Hicks, Raymond P., and Connelly, Matthew. 2018. “Underfunding the State Department Could Hurt U.S. Exports—and U.S. Companies.” Washington Post. Feb. 14, 2018.Google Scholar
Kasaija, Pa. 2004. “Regional Integration: A Political Federation of the East African Countries?” African Journal of International Affairs 7: 1–2.Google Scholar
Kazah-Toure, Toure. 2006. “Central Challenges Confronting the African State: Rethinking its Role in Development.” African Journal of International Affairs 9 (1/2): 41–59.Google Scholar
Laver, Michael, and Garry, John. 2000. “Estimating Policy Positions from Political Texts.” American Journal of Political Science 44 (3): 619–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, Jeffrey D., Robinson, Sherman, and Thierfelder, Karen. 2003. “Free Trade and the SADC Economies.” Journal of African Economics 12 (2): 156–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lovejoy, Henry B., et al. 2019. “Redefining African Regions for Linking Open-Source Data.” History in Africa 46: 5–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lumumba-Kasongo, Tukumbi. 2002. “Reconceptualizing the State as the Leading Agent of Development in the Context of Globalization in Africa.” African Journal of Political Science/Revue Africaine de Science Politique 7 (1): 71–108.Google Scholar
Mann, Gregory. 2014. From Empires to NGOs in the West African Sahel: The Road to Nongovernmentality. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Merzoug, Mohamed Salem. 2005. L’eau, l’Afrique, la solidarité: une nouvelle espérance: l’ONVS, un cas de développement solidaire. Paris: Présence Africaine.Google Scholar
Meublat, Guy, and Ingles, Jérôme. 1997. “L’Eternel Retour d’une Politique de Grands Projets: L’Aménagement du Fleuve Sénégal en Perspective.” In Régards Intérdiciplinaires sur les Politiques de Développement, edited by Baré, Jean-François, 163–99. Paris: L’Harmattan.Google Scholar
Mugomba, Agrippah T. 1978. “Regional Organisations and the African Underdevelopment: The Collapse of the East African Community.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 16 (2): 261–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ndiaye, Guédel. 1980. L’échec de la Fédération du Mali. Dakar: Les Nouvelles éditions Africaines, 1980.Google Scholar
Nye, Joseph S. 1963. “East African Economic Integration.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 4 (1): 475–502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Brien, David. 2000. “The Search for Subsidarity: The UN, African Regional Organizations and Humanitarian Action.” International Peacekeeping 7 (3): 57–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Connor, Brendan T. 2011. “Be careful with dictionary-based text analysis.” AI and Social Science Webpage. Published Oct. 5, 2011. Accessed May 15, 2019. https://brenocon.com/blog/2011/10/be-careful-with-dictionary-based-text-analysis/ Google Scholar
Rempel, Ruth. 2008. “Periodizing African Development History.” African Economic History 36 (1): 125–58.Google Scholar
Sarraut, Albert. 1923. La mise en valeur des colonies françaises. Paris: Payot & cie.Google Scholar
Savenije, Hubert H. G., and van der Zaag, Pieter. 2000. “Conceptual Framework for the Management of Shared River Basins; with Special Reference to the SADC and EU.” Water Policy 2: 9–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Searing, James F. 1993. West African Slavery and Atlantic Commerce: The Senegal River Valley,1700–1860. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spirling, Arthur. 2012. “U.S. Treaty Making with American Indians: Institutional Change and Relative Power, 1784–1991.” American Journal of Political Science 56 (1): 84–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sterling, Claire. May 1974. “The Making of the Sub-Saharan Wasteland.” Atlantic Monthly. Google Scholar
Tiffert, Glenn D. 2019. “Peering down the Memory Hole: Censorship, Digitization, and the Fragility of Our Knowledge Base.” American Historical Review 124 (2): 550–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vaitsos, Constantine V. 1978. “Crisis in Regional Economic Cooperation (integration) among Developing Countries: A Survey.” World Development 6 (6): 719–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webb, James L. A. 1995. Desert Frontier: Ecological and Economic Change Along the Western Sahel. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Weldesellassie, K. Isaac. 2011. “IGAD as an International Organization, Its Institutional Development and Shortcomings.” Journal of African Law 55 (1): 1–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkens, Matthew. 2013. “The Geographic Imagination of Civil War-Era American Fiction.” American Literary History 25 (4): 803–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yansané, Aguibou Y., ed. 1996. Prospects for Recovery and Sustainable Development in Africa. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
Zarour, Charbel. 1986a. “La Coopération Arabo-Sénégalaise.” Africa Development/Afrique et Dévoloppement 11 (2/3): 261–87.Google Scholar
Zarour, Charbel. 1986b. “Mechanismes Financièrs de la Coopération Arabo-Africaine,” Africa Development/Afrique et Développement 11 (2/3): 89–136.Google Scholar
Zeng, Ning. 2003. “Drought in the Sahel.” Science 302: 999–1000.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed