Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T05:38:08.914Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Allochthons, Colonizers, and Scroungers: Exclusionary Populism in Belgium

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 May 2014

Bambi Ceuppens
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract:

This article analyzes the growth of autochthony in Belgium as an example of the increasing popularity of autochthony discourses in Western Europe. Autochthony discourses, which try to reserve the benefits of the welfare state to those who are said to really belong, tend to thrive in prosperous Western European welfare states with a strong Social-Democratic tradition that refuse to accept that they have become immigrant countries. In federalized Belgium, however, autochthony has a much stronger appeal in Flanders, which historically was dominated by Christian-Democratic parties, than in Wallonia, which remains a Social-Democratic bulwark. Analyzing Western European autochthony in terms of welfare chauvinism helps explain the ways in which prosperous Flemings, unlike impoverished Walloons, can afford to buy into the neoliberal rhetoric of choice and thus create themselves as autochthons.

Résumé:

Résumé:

Cette contribution analyse la progression de l'autochtonie en Belgique, pour montrer la popularité grandissante du discours autochtone en Europe de l'Ouest. Les discours de l'autochtonie, tentant de réserver les privilèges de l'aide sociale venant de l'état à ceux qui sont considéréd comme les vrais citoyens, ont tendance à s'épanouir dans les pays prospères de l'Europe de l'Ouest avec une tradition sociale démocratique forte et qui refusent d'admettre qu'ils sont devenus des pays d'immigration. En Belgique fédérale, cependant, l'autochtonie a un succès beaucoup plus fort en Flandre, historiquement dominée par les régions chrétiennes démocratiques, qu'en Wallonie, le bastion social démocratique. L'analyse de l'autochtonie d'Europe de l'Ouest en termes de chauvinisme de la protection sociale permet de montrer comment les habitants de la Flandre prospère, à l'opposé des Wallons appauvris, peuvent se permettre d'accueillir une rhétorique néo-libérale de choix, s'établissant ainsi eux-mêmes comme des autochtones.

Type
Special Issue
Information
African Studies Review , Volume 49 , Issue 2: Autochthony and the Crisis of Citizenship , September 2006 , pp. 147 - 186
Copyright
Copyright © African Studies Association 2006

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ackaert, Johan, and Dekien, C.. 1989. Samenvoeging van gemeenten: veranderingen in de gemeentelijke organisatie en beleidsvoering. Beleidsevaluerend onderzoek m.b.t. de gemeenten uit het Vlaamse gewest. S.n.: Fonds voor Kollektief Fundamenteel Onderzoek.Google Scholar
Ackaert, Johan. 1992. “De nationalisatie van de gemeentepolitiek. Een onderzoek naar de verwevenheid tussen nationale politiek en gemeentepolitiek op het niveau van de politieke mandatarissen.” In Les élections communales et leur impact sur la politique beige (1890–1970). Colloque international, 16e, Spa, 1992-09, 02. Pro Civitate. Collection Histoire 87. Brussels: Credit Communal de Belgique.Google Scholar
Ackaert, Johan. 1994. De gemeenteraadsverkiezingen. Leuven: Davidsfonds.Google Scholar
Agnew, John. 1994. “The Rhetoric of Regionalism: The Northern League in Italian Politics, 1983–94”. Transactions of the Institute of British Geography (N.S.) 20: 156–72.Google Scholar
Appadurai, Arjun. 1991. “The Production of Locality.” In Counterworks: Managing the Diversity of Knowledge, edited by Fardon, Richard. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Arnaut, Karel, and Ceuppens, Bambi. 2004. “Het VB als mysterie: wetenschappelijke en politieke uitwegen.” Samenleving en Politiek 11: 38–45.Google Scholar
Bagley, Paul. 1973. The Dutch Plural Society: A Comparative Study in Race Relations. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Balancier, Pascal. 2004. “Les personnes d'origine étrangère et l'emploi en Wallonie.” In Recherche et Politiques Publiques: le cas de l'immigration en Belgique, edited by Brans, Marleen. Ghent: Academia Press.Google Scholar
Bauman, Zygmund. 1993. Life in Fragments. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Bauman, Zygmund. 1998. “Hereditary Victimhood: The Holocaust's Life as a Ghost.” Tikkun 13 (4): 33–38.Google Scholar
Berdahl, Daphne. 1999. Where the World Ended: Re-Unification and Identity in the German Borderland. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Betz, Hans-Georg. 2001. “Exclusionary Populism in Austria, Italy and Switzerland.” International Journal 56 (3): 393–419.Google Scholar
Billiet, Jaak, De Witte, Hans, and Waege, Hans. 1999. “Betrokkenheid bij de christelijke arbeidersbeweging en de houding tegenover migranten: een onderzoek naar de verklaringskracht van de notie ‘sociaal-culturele christenheid.’” In Cultuur, etniciteit en migratie. Culture, Ethnicity and Migration. Liber Amicorum Prof. Dr. E. Roosens, edited by Foblets, Marie-Claire and Pang, Ching Lin. Leuven: Acco.Google Scholar
Boender, Welmoet, and Kanmaz, Meryem. 2002. “Imams in the Netherlands and Islam Teachers in Flanders.” In Intercultural Relations and Religious Authorities: Muslims in the European Union, edited by Shadid, W. A. R. and Van Koningsveld, P. S.. Leuven: Peeters.Google Scholar
Blommaert, Jan. 2005. “Blokspraak.” De Witte Raaf14. www.avrug.be.Google Scholar
Blommaert, Jan, and Verschueren, Jef. 1998. Debating Diversity: Analysing the Discourse of Tolerance. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Bouveroux, Jos. 1996. Van zwarte zondag tot zwarte zondag: vijf jaar vernieuwingen in de Wetstraat—Belgische politiek in Europees perspectief. Antwerp: Icarus.Google Scholar
Bowie, Fiona. 1993. “Wales from Within: Conflicting Interpretations of Welsh Identity.” In Inside European Identities: Ethnography in Western Europe, edited by Macdonald, Sharon. Providence: Berg.Google Scholar
Buelens, Jo, and Van Dyck, R.. 1998. “Regionalist Parties in French-Speaking Belgium: The Rassemblement Wallon and the Front Démocratique des Francophones.” In Regionalist Parties in Western Europe, edited by De Winter, Lieven and Türsan, Huri. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Caestecker, Frank. 1997. “In het kielzog van de Natiestaat. De Politiek van Nationaliteitsverwerving, -verlies en -toekenning in Belgie, 1830-1909.” Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Nieuwste Geschiedenis 27 (3–4): 323–49.Google Scholar
Caestecker, Frank. 2000. Alien Policy in Belgium, 1840–1940: The Creation of Guest Workers, Refugees and Illegal Aliens. Oxford: Berghahn.Google Scholar
Caestecker, Frank 2001. “Grensoverschrijdende migraties uit en in Vlaanderen.” In Wat weten we (niet) over allochtonen in Vlaanderen? Komende generaties, edited by Vranken, Jan, Timmerman, Christiane, and Van der Heyden, Katrien. Leuven: Acco.Google Scholar
Castells, Manuel. 1983. The City and the Grassroots: A Cross-Cultural Theory of Urban Social Movements. London: Edward Arnold.Google Scholar
Ceuppens, Bambi. 2001. “Le Vlaams Blok et le Flamand ‘naturel.’” Critique Internationale 10: 143–57.Google Scholar
Ceuppens, Bambi. 2003. Congo made in Flanders? Koloniale Vlaamse visies op “blank” en “zwart” in Belgisch Congo. Ghent: Academia Press.Google Scholar
Ceuppens, Bambi, and Geschiere, Peter. 2005. “Autochthony: Local or Global? New Modes in the Struggle over Citizenship and Belonging in Africa and Europe.” Annual Review of Anthropology 84: 385–405.Google Scholar
Clapham, Christopher. 1982. “Clientelism and the State.” In Private Patronage and Public Power: Political Clientelism in the Modem State, edited by Clapham, Christopher. London: Frances Pinter.Google Scholar
Coakley, John. 1992. “The Social Origins of Nationalist Movements and Explanations of Nationalism: A Review.” In The Social Origins of Nationalist Movements: The Contemporary West European Experience, edited by Coakley, John. London: SAGE Publications.Google Scholar
Coffé, Hilde. 2005. Extreem-rechts in Vlaanderen en Wallonië: het verschil. Roeselare: Roularta Books.Google Scholar
Cohen, Anthony P. 1972. “Belonging: The Experience of Culture.” In Belonging: Identity and Social Organisation in British Rural Cultures, edited by Cohen, Anthony P.. Manchester: Manchester University Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, Anthony P. 1982. “Blockade: A Case Study of Local Consciousness in an Extra-Local Event.” In Belonging: Identity and Social Organisation in British Rural Cultures, edited by Cohen, Anthony P.. Manchester: Manchester University Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, Anthony P. 1985. The Symbolic Construction of Community. London: Tavistock Publications.Google Scholar
Cohen, Anthony P. 2000. “Peripheral Vision: Nationalism, National Identity and the Objective Correlation in Scotland.” In Signifying Identities: Anthropological Perspectives on Boundaries and Contested Values, edited by Cohen, Anthony P.. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Comaroff, Jean, and Comaroff, John. 2003. “Reflections on Liberalism, Policulturalism, and ID-ology: Citizenship and Difference in South Africa.” Social Identities 9 (4): 445–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Comaroff, Jean. 2005. “The End of History, Again? Pursuing the Past in the Post-colony.” In Postcolonial Studies and Beyond, edited by Loomba, Ania et al. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Cuperus, René. 2005. “‘Ik ben uw leider, dus ik volg u’: de alarmerende lokroep van het populisme.” Ons Erfdeel 48 (3): 349–57.Google Scholar
Debougnoux, Christel. 1986. Taalvoorkeur en keuzegedrag bij de gemeenteraadsverkiezingen in de Voerstreeh. M.A. diss., Catholic University of Leuven.Google Scholar
Delmartino, Frank. 1982. “Het cultuurbeleid in de gefusioneerde gemeenten.” Res Publico 24 (3–4): 577–88.Google Scholar
Demelenne, Claude. 1995. Le cas Happart. La tentation nationaliste. Brussels: Ed. Luc Pire.Google Scholar
Deprez, Kas, and Wynants, Armel. 1987. “Voeren: onmogelijk op te lossen?” Kultuurleven 54 (8): 701–21.Google Scholar
Deschouwer, Kris. 1994. “Local Elections in Belgium: Between Nationalization and Localism.” In Local Elections in Europe, edited by Hoffmann-Martinot, Vincent et al. Barcelona: Institut de Ciències Polítiques i Socials.Google Scholar
Deschouwer, Kris, and Mariette, D.. 1993. “Europese migranten in de Brusselse rand.” In De Brusselse Rand, edited by Witte, Els. Brusselse Thema's 1. Brussels: VUB Press.Google Scholar
Dewachter, Wilfried. 1970. “Gemeenteraadsverkiezingen en verstedelijking.” In De politieke zeggingskracht van de gemeenteraadsverkiezingen, edited by Dewachter, Wilfried et al. Antwerp: Standaard wetenschappelijke uitgeverij.Google Scholar
Dewachter, Wilfried. 1982. “Het effect van de samenvoeging van gemeenten op de gemeenteraadsverkiezingen.” Res Publica 24 (3–4): 445–60.Google Scholar
De Winter, Lieven. 1998. “The Volksunie and the Dilemma between Policy Success and Electoral Survival in Flanders.” In Regionalist Parties in Western Europe, edited by De Winter, Lieven and Türsan, Hursi. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
De Zutter, Jan. 2000. Heidenen voor het blok: radicaal-rechts en het nieuwe heidendom. Antwerp: Houtekiet.Google Scholar
Distelmans, Bart, and Koppen, Jimmy. 2002. “Hoofdlijnen in de ontwikkeling van de faciliteitenproblematiek.” In Taalfaciliteiten in deRand—Ontwikkelingslijnen, conflictgebieden en taalpraktijk, edited by Koppen, Jimmy, Distelmans, Bart, and Janssens, Rudi. Brusselse Thema's 9. Brussels: VUB Press.Google Scholar
Edelman, Marc. 2001. “Social Movements: Paradigms and Forms of Politics.” Annual Review of Anthropology 30: 285–317.Google Scholar
Edwards, Jeanette. 1998. “The Need for a ‘Bit of History’: Place and Past in English Identity.” In Locality and Belonging, edited by Lovell, Nadia. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Erk, Jan. 2005. “From Vlaams Blok to Vlaams Belang: The Belgian Far-Right Renames Itself.” West European Politics 28 (3): 493–502.Google Scholar
Haegemans, Hans, Lauwers, Jan, and Pijnenburg, Bart. 1976. Modernisering en participatie in de Kempen: een situering van het socio-cultureel verenigingsleven. Deel II. Antwerp: Universitaire Instelling Antwerpen-Departement Politieke en Sociale Wetenschappen.Google Scholar
Hermet, Guy. 2001. Les populismes dans le monde. Une histoire sociologique XIXe–XXe siècle. Paris: Fayard.Google Scholar
Hill, Richard. 2005. The Art of Being Belgian. Brussels: Europublications.Google Scholar
Holmes, Douglas R. 2000. Integral Europe: Fast-Capitalism, Multiculturalism, Neofascism. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Holy, Ladislav. 1998. “The Metaphor of ‘Home’ in Czech Nationalist Discourse.” In Migrants of Identity: Perceptions of Home in a World of Movement, edited by Rapport, Nigel and Dawson, Andy. Oxford: Berg Publishers.Google Scholar
Hooghe, Liesbeth. 1991. A Leap in the Dark: Nationalist Conflict And Federal Reform in Belgium. Western Societies Program, Occasional Paper no. 27. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University.Google Scholar
Hooghe, Liesbeth. 1993. “De relatie Brussel-Brusselse rand-Vlaanderen.” In De Brusselse rand. Brusselse Thema's 1, edited by Witte, Els. Brussels: VUB Press.Google Scholar
Hooghe, Marc. 2003. Sociaal Kapitaal in Vlaanderen: Verenigingen en Democratisch Politieke Cultuur. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.Google Scholar
Hossay, Patrick. 1996. “‘Our People First!’ Understanding the Resonance of the Vlaams Blok's Xenophobic Programme.” Social Identities 2 (3): 343–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huyse, Luc. 1970. Passiviteit, pacificatie en verzuiling in de Belgische politiek: een sociologische studie. Antwerp: Standaard Wetenschappelijke Uitgeverij.Google Scholar
Huyse, Luc. 1991. Onverwerkt verleden: collaboratie en repressie in België 1942–1952. Leuven: Kritak.Google Scholar
Janssens, Rudi. 2001. Taalgebruik in Brussel: taalverhoudingen, taalverschuivingen en taalidentiteit in een meertalige stad. Brusselse Thema's 8. Brussels: VUB Press.Google Scholar
Janssens, Rudi. 2002. “Taalgebruik in de faciliteitengemeenten.” In Taalfaciliteiten in de Rand—Ontwikkelingslijnen, conflictgebieden en taalpraktijk. Brusselse Thema's 9, edited by Koppen, Jimmy, Distelmans, Bart, and Janssens, Rudi. Brussels: VUB Press.Google Scholar
Jaspers, Jürgen. 2005. “Talige sabotage van Marokkaansejongens. Integratie in een ongelijke samenleving.” Samenleving en Politiek 12 (5): 20–33.Google Scholar
Kastoryano, Riva. 2002. “Citizenship and Belonging: Beyond Blood and Soil.” In The Postnational Self: Belonging and Identity, edited by Hedetoft, Ulf and Hjort, Mette. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Kellas, J. G. 1992. “The Social Origins of Nationalism in Great Britain: The Case of Scotland.” In The Social Origins of Nationalist Movements: The Contemporary West European Experience, edited by Coakley, John. London: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Kerkhofs, Jan, and Rezsohazy, Rudolf. 1984. De stille ommekeer. Oude en nieuwe waarden in het België van dejaren tachtig. Tielt: Lannoo.Google Scholar
Kerkhofs, Jan, et al. 1992. De versnelde ommekeer, De waarden van Vlamingen, Walen en Brusselaars in dejaren negentig. Tielt: Lanoo.Google Scholar
Kesteloot, Chantal. 1993. Mouvement wallon et identite nationale. Bruxelles: Centre de Recherche et d'Information Socio-Politique, Courrier Hebdomaire 1392.Google Scholar
Kesteloot, Chantal. 2003. “Le regard de l'autre—le mouvement flamand vu par le mouvement wallon.” Cahiers Marxistes 226: 117–30.Google Scholar
Kesteloot, Chantal. 2004. Au nom de la Wallonie et de Bruxelles français: Les origines du FDF. Brussels: Editions Complexe.Google Scholar
Kitschelt, Herbert, with McGann, Anthony J.. 1995. The Radical Right in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Klein, Gertrud. 2000. “La laiterie, Strasbourg, France: ‘From the Singular to the Manifold.’” In Para-Sites: A Casebook against Cynical Reason, edited by Marcus, George E.. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Knight, John. 1994. “Questioning Local Boundaries.” Ethnos 3–4: 213–31.Google Scholar
Koppen, Jimmy. 2002. ”De pacificatiewet van 9 augustus 19889 (sic).” In Taalfaciliteiten in de Rand—Ontwikkelingslijnen, conflictgebieden en taalpraktijk. Brusselse Thema's 9, edited by Koppen, Jimmy, Distelmans, Bart, and Janssens, Rudi. Brussels: VUB Press.Google Scholar
Jimmy, Koppen, Distelmans, Bart, and Janssens, Rudi. 2002. Taalfaciliteiten in de Rand—Ontwikkelingslijnen, conflictgebieden en taalpraktijk. Brusselse Thema's 9. Brussels: VUB Press.Google Scholar
Lamont, Michèle. 2002. “Working Men's Imagined Communities: The Boundaries of Race, Immigration, and Poverty in France and the United States.” In The Postnational Self: Belonging and Identity, edited by Hedetoft, Ulf and Hjort, Mette. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Lamy, S. 1986. “Policy Responses to Ethnonationalism: Consociational Engineering in Belgium.” In The Primordial Challenge: Ethnicity in the Contemporary World, edited by Stack, John F.. New York: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
Laureys, Eric. 2005. Francophones de Flandre: l'ultime défi à l'édification d'une Flandre tolérante. Brussels: Cegesoma. Manuscript AB 2242.Google Scholar
Levy, Carl. 1996. “Introduction: Italian Regionalism in Context.” In Italian Regionalism: History, Identity and Politics, edited by Levy, Carl. Oxford: Berg.Google Scholar
Lijphart, Arend. 1977. Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Lijphart, Arend 1981. “Introduction: The Belgian Example of Cultural Coexistence in Comparative Perspective.” In Conflict and Coexistence in Belgium: The Dynamics of a Culturally Divided Society, edited by Lijphart, Arend.University of California, Berkeley: Institute of International Studies.Google Scholar
Lorwin, Val R. 1967. “Belgium: Religion, Class, and Language in National Politics.” In Political Oppositions in Western Democracies, edited by Dahl, Robert A.. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Lorwin, Val R. 1974. “Belgium: Conflict and Compromise.” In Consociational Democracy: Political Accommodation in Segmented Societies, edited by McRae, Kenneth. Carleton, Ont.: The Carleton Library No. 70.Google Scholar
Lyttieton, Adrian. 1996. “Shifting Identities: Nation, Region and City.” In Italian Regionalism: History, Identity and Politics, edited by Levy, Carl. Oxford: Berg.Google Scholar
McDonald, Maryon. 1993. ‘We Are Not French!’ Language, Culture and Identity in Brittany. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Macdonald, Sharon. 1997. Reimagining Culture: Histories, Identities and the Gaelic Renaissance. Oxford: Berg.Google Scholar
Maddens, Bart, Billiet, Jaak, and Beerten, Roeland. 2000. “National Identity and the Attitude towards Foreigners in Multi-national States: The Case of Belgium.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 26 (1): 45–60.Google Scholar
Martens, Albert, and Caestecker, Frank. 2001. “De algemene beleidsontwikkelingen sinds 1984.” In Komende generaties. Wat weten we (niet) over allochtonen in Vlaanderen? edited by Vranken, Jan, Timmerman, Christiane, and Van der Heyden, Katrien. Leuven: ACCO.Google Scholar
Meert, Henk. 1993. “Sociale verdringing en huisvestingsbeleid in Vlaams-Brabant.” In De Brusselse Rand. Brusselse Thema's 1, edited by Witte, Els. Brussels: VUB Press.Google Scholar
Meeuwis, Michael. 1999. “Flemish Nationalism in the Belgian Congo vs. Zairian Anti-imperialism: Continuity and Discontinuity in Language Ideological Debates.” In Language Ideological Debates, edited by Blommaert, Jan. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Méndez-Lago, Mónica. 1999. “Electoral Consequences of (De-)Pillarization: The Cases of Austria, Belgium and the Netherlands (1945–96).” In Party Elites in Divided Societies: Political Parties in Consociational Democracy, edited by Luther, Kurt Richard and Deschouwer, Kris. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Mettewie, Laurence. 1998. “Blocages francophones face à l'apprentissage du néerlandais ou la place du néerlandais dans notre système de valeurs.” In Le racisme: élément du conflit Flamands-francophones? edited by Morelli, Anne et al. Brussels: Editions Labor.Google Scholar
Okkerse, Liesbet, and Termote, Anja. 2004. Statistische studie nr 111. Hoe vreemd is vreemd op de arbeidsmarkt? Over de allochtone arbeidskrachten in België. Brussels: Algemene Directie Statistiek en Economische Informatie.Google Scholar
Peeters, Jaak. 1997. Waarde landgenoten: brief van een Vlaamse nationalist aan de nieuwe Vlamingen. Antwerp: Standaard Uitgeverij.Google Scholar
Perea, Juan F., ed. 1997. Immigrants Out! The New Nativism and the Anti-Immigrant Impulse in the United States. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Pred, Allan. 2000. Even in Sweden: Racisms, Racialized Spaces and the Popular Geographical Imagination. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Reed-Danahay, Deborah. 1996. Education and Identity in Rural France: The Politics of Rural Schooling. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Reynebeau, Marc. 1995. Het klauwen van de leeuw: de Vlaamse identiteit van de 12de tot de 21ste eeuw. Leuven: Van Halewyck.Google Scholar
Reynaert, Hans. 1997. “De sociale achtergrond van de lokale politieke elite in Vlaanderen 1946–1988.” Res Publica (1): 45–62.Google Scholar
Rhottier, Rudi. 2001. Hotel Fabiola: een verslag uit Borgerhout. Amsterdam: Uitgeverij Atlas.Google Scholar
Richard, Daniel. 1993. “José Happart, un phénomène en politique.” In Ubac, Pierre, ed., Génération Fourons. S.l.: De Boeck Université.Google Scholar
Rogers, Susan Carol. 1991. Shaping Modern Times in Rural France: The Transformation and Reproduction of an Aveyronnais Community. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Roosens, Eugeen. 1989. Creating Ethnicity: The Process of Ethnogenesis. Newbury Park, Calif: Sage.Google Scholar
Roosens, Eugeen 1994. “The Primordial Nature of Origins in Migrant Ethnicity.” In The Anthropology of Ethnicity: Beyond ‘Ethnic Groups and Boundaries,’ edited by Vermeulen, Hans and Govers, Cora. Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis.Google Scholar
Roosens, Eugeen 1998. Eigen grond eerst? Primordiale autochtonie: dilemma van de multiculturele samenleving. Leuven: Acco.Google Scholar
Saerens, Lieven. 2000. Vreemdelingen in de grootstad: een geschiedenis van Antwerpen en zijn joodse bevolking (1880–1944). Tielt: Lannoo.Google Scholar
Sahlins, Peter. 1989. Boundaries: The Making of France and Spain in the Pyrenees. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Savage, Mike, Bagnall, Gaynor, and Longhurst, Brian. 2005. Globalization and Belonging: Theory, Culture and Society. London: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Sepp, Arvi. 1998. “Wit en zwart: enkele bedenkingen omtrent communitaire taalgebruik van het FDF.” http://interaxis.sesuadra.org/Interaxis2/html5/artikels5.html.Google Scholar
Sider, Gerald M. 1987. “When Parrots Learn to Talk and Why They Can't: Domination, Deception, and Self-Deception in Indian-White Relations.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 29 (1): 3–23.Google Scholar
Silverman, Max. 1996. “The Revenge of Civil Society: State, Nation and Society in France.” In Citizenship, Nationality and Migration in Europe, edited by Cesarani, David and Fulbrook, Mary. London: Roudedge.Google Scholar
Soysal, Yasemin Nuhoğlu. 1994. Limits of Citizenship: Migrants and Postnational Membership in Europe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Steigerwald, David. 2004. Culture's Vanities: The Paradox of Cultural Diversity in a Globalized World. Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Stolcke, Verena. 1995. “Talking Culture: New Boundaries, New Rhetorics of Exclusion in Europe.” Current Anthropology 36 (1): 1–24.Google Scholar
Strathern, Marilyn. 1982. “The Village as an Idea: Constructs of Villageness in Elmdon, Essex.” In Belonging: Identity and Social Organisation in British Rural Cultures, edited by Cohen, Anthony P.. Manchester: Manchester University Press.Google Scholar
Swyngedouw, Marc. 1998a. “Anvers: Une ville à la portée du VB . In L'extrême droite en France et en Belgique, edited by Delwit, Pascal, De Waele, Jean-Michel, and Rea, Andrea. Brussels: Éditions Complexe.Google Scholar
Swyngedouw, Marc. 1998b. “La construction du ‘péril immigré’ en Flandre: 1930–1980.” In Immigration et racisme en Europe, edited by Rea, Andrea. Brussels: Éditions Complexe.Google Scholar
Tastenhoye, Guido. 1991. Vlaams Brabant in de wurggreep van Europa. Leuven: Davids-fonds.Google Scholar
Tastenhoye, Guido 1993. Naar de multiculturele samenleving? Leuven: Davidsfonds.Google Scholar
“Touriste, autochtone: qui est l'étranger?” Ethnologie française 32 (3): 389–540.Google Scholar
Vail, Leroy, ed. 1989. The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa. London: James Currey.Google Scholar
Vaes, Bénédicte, and Demelenne, Claude. 1995. De zaak Happart: de nationalistische valstrik (S.d. Le cas Happart. La tentation nationaliste. S.I.: Éditions Luc Pire). Translated by van Ardenne, Claudia, Desloovere, Jeroen, and de Sy, Hubert. Antwerp: Hadewijch.Google Scholar
Van den Broeck, Walter. 1980. Brief aan Boudewijn. Antwerp: Manteau.Google Scholar
Vandermeeren, Sabine, and Wynants, Armel. 1993. “Ajourd'hui: polyglossie, plurilinguisme, schizoglossie?” In Génération Fouron, edited by Ubac, Pierre. Louvain-la-Neuve: De Boeck Université.Google Scholar
Vandersteene, Liesbeth, and Schiepers, Pieter. 1994–1995. “Natievorming, nationalisme en vreemdelingen. Beeldvorming rond vreemdelingen en Belgen in de Kamerdiscussies voer de eerste Belgische vreemdelingenwet.” Revue belge d'histoire contemporaire 25 (1–2): 31–78.Google Scholar
Vanginderachter, Maarten. 2004. “L'introuvable opposition entre le régionalisme citoyen wallon et le nationalisme ethnique flamand. À propos de l'Encyclopédie du Mouvement wallon.” Cahiers d'Études du Temps Présent 13/14: 67–96.Google Scholar
Van Istendael, Geert. 1993. Het Belgisch labyrint: Wakker warden in een ander land. Amsterdam: de Arbeiderspers.Google Scholar
Van Laar, Hans. 1988. Voeren: een politiek-cultureel antropologische studie van de tweespalt in 's Gravenvoeren. Aktueel nr. 22. Brussels: Grammens.Google Scholar
Van Laar, Hans 1993. “Un seul lit pour deux rêves.” In Génération Fourons, edited by Ubac, Pierre. Louvain-la-Neuve: De Boeck Université.Google Scholar
Van Laar, Hans 1994. “De taal van het grafschrift en politieke identiteit in Voeren.” Mens en Maatschappij 69 (1): 47–68.Google Scholar
Van San, Marion, and Leerkes, Arjen. 2001. Criminaliteit en Criminalisering. Allochtone jongeren in België. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.Google Scholar
Verjans, Pierre. 1985. “Les Fouronais imaginaires: conditions sociales du militanisme régional dans une commune symbole de la frontière linguistique en Belgique.” La problématique fouronnaise. Rapport complémentaire. Liège: Service de Politologie régionale.Google Scholar
Verschueren, Jef. 2003. “A Touch of Class: The Erasion of Group-Based Social Inequality as a Hegemonic Process in Political Discourse.” Pragmatics 13 (1): 135–43.Google Scholar
Werbner, Pnina. 2005. “Islamophobia: Incitement to Religious Hatred: Legislating for a New Fear?” Anthropology Today 21 (1): 5–9.Google Scholar
Wigny, Pierre. 1969. Comprendre la Belgique. Venders: Marabout.Google Scholar
Wilmars, Dirk. 1968. De psychologie van de Franstalige in Vlaanderen: de achtergrond van de taalstrijd. Antwerp: Standaard Uitgeverij.Google Scholar
Wils, Lode. 1992. Van Clovis tot Happart: de lange weg van de naties in de lage landen. Leuven: Garant.Google Scholar
Wylie, Leslie. 1964. Village in the Vaucluse. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Young, Crawford. 1965. Politics in the Congo: Decolonization and Independence. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar