Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-d8cs5 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-27T04:26:18.795Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Intergenerational relationships and trajectories of older parents’ cognitive functioning in multi-child families

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 January 2025

Yang Zhang Open the ORCID record for Yang Zhang [Opens in a new window] ,
Jiaowei Gong ,
Tianrong Tang  and
Ting Li Open the ORCID record for Ting Li [Opens in a new window]
Yang Zhang
Affiliation:
Department of Sociology, Peking University, Beijing, China
Jiaowei Gong
Affiliation:
T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA
Tianrong Tang
Affiliation:
School of Population and Health, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China
Ting Li*
Affiliation:
Population Development Studies Center, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China
*
Corresponding author: Ting Li; Email: li.ting@ruc.edu.cn
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

High-quality intergenerational relationships positively influence cognitive functioning in older parents. However, there is insufficient information on how they shape the trajectories of mothers’ and fathers’ cognitive functioning decline in multi-child families, owing to the complexity of intergenerational relationships, such as multi-dimensional and ambivalent natures and differences varying across children. Drawing on three waves of data (2014, 2016 and 2018) from a nationally representative survey – the China Longitudinal Ageing Social Survey (N = 9,404) – we used the k-means clustering method to discern patterns of intergenerational relationships in multi-child Chinese families, as well as the growth curve models, to examine the associations between parent–child relationship types and the trajectories of older parents’ cognitive functioning. Five types of intergenerational relationship were identified: alienated, stressfully interacting, independent, beneficially interacting and tight-knit. We then investigated the associations between trajectories of cognitive functioning and the most distant type, the closest type, and the heterogeneity of parent–child relationships across multiple children. The most distant parent–child relationship was significantly related to cognitive functioning trajectories with the alienated (tight-knit) type associated with the lowest (highest) levels of cognitive functioning and the fastest (slowest) cognitive decline. However, the closest parent–child relationship was not significantly related to cognitive functioning trajectories. Moreover, greater variation in relationships with multiple children was correlated with lower levels of cognitive functioning and faster cognitive functioning decline. These associations were stronger among mothers than fathers. This study provides new insights into the potentially protective role of intergenerational relationships in older parents’ cognitive functioning and their gendered differences.

Keywords

cognitive functioninggenderintergenerational relationshipmulti-child families
Type
Article
Information
Ageing & Society , First View , pp. 1 - 27
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aneshensel, CS, Frerichs, RR and Clark, VA (1981) Family roles and sex differences in depression. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 22, 379–393. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136679.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bai, X (2018) Development and validation of a multidimensional intergenerational relationship quality scale for aging Chinese parents. Gerontologist 58, e338–e348. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnx156.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Batty, GD, Deary, IJ and Gottfredson, LS (2007) Premorbid (early life) IQ and later mortality risk: Systematic review. Annals of Epidemiology 17, 278–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2006.07.010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bengtson, V, Giarrusso, R, Mabry, JB and Silverstein, M (2002) Solidarity, conflict, and ambivalence: Complementary or competing perspectives on intergenerational relationships? Journal of Marriage and Family 64, 568–576. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00568.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bengtson, VL and Roberts, REL (1991) Intergenerational solidarity in aging families: An example of formal theory construction. Journal of Marriage and Family 53, 856–870. https://doi.org/10.2307/352993.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowen, M (1975) Family therapy after twenty years. In Arieti, S (ed), American Handbook of Psychiatry, 2nd edn. New York: Basic Books, 367–391.Google Scholar
Chen, J and Zhou, X (2021) Within-family patterns of intergenerational emotional closeness and psychological well-being of older parents in China. Aging and Mental Health 25, 711–719. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2020.1711867.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cong, Z and Silverstein, M (2012) Caring for grandchildren and intergenerational support in rural China: A gendered extended family perspective. Ageing & Society 32, 425–450. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X11000420.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Connidis, IA (2015) Exploring ambivalence in family ties: Progress and prospects. Journal of Marriage and Family 77, 77–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Connidis, IA and McMullin, JA (2002) Sociological ambivalence and family ties: A critical perspective. Journal of Marriage and Family 64, 558–567. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00558.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davey, A and Eggebeen, DJ (1998) Patterns of intergenerational exchange and mental health. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 53, 86–95. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/53B.2.P86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Du, P, Sun, J, Zhang, W and Wang, X (2016) The demands of old-age care and the family and social resources for the Chinese elderly: A study based on 2014 China Longitudinal Aging Social Survey (in Chinese). Population Research 6, 49–61. https://shorturl.at/IS8F8.Google Scholar
Fei, X (1983) Old-age care during the family structure change: Revisiting the family structure change (in Chinese). Journal of Peking University (Philosophy and Social Sciences) 1, 7–16. https://shorturl.at/AGHc4.Google Scholar
Fingerman, KL, Pitzer, L, Lefkowitz, ES, Birditt, KS and Mroczek, D (2008) Ambivalent relationship qualities between adults and their parents: Implications for the well-being of both parties. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 63, 362–371. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/63.6.P362.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Folstein, MF, Folstein, SE and McHugh, PR (1975) ‘Mini-mental state’: A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research 12, 189–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3956(75)90026-6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guo, M, Chi, I and Silverstein, M (2012) The structure of intergenerational relations in rural China: A latent class analysis. Journal of Marriage and Family 74, 1114–1128. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2012.01014.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hsu, J (1985) The Chinese family: Relations, problems, and therapy. In Tseng, W-S and David, YHW (eds), Chinese Culture and Mental Health. Amsterdam: Academic Press, 95–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hu, A (2017) Providing more but receiving less: Daughters in intergenerational exchange in Mainland China. Journal of Marriage and Family 79, 739–757. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12391.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hua, CL, Brown, JS and Bulanda, JR (2021) Intergenerational ambivalence and loneliness in later life. Journal of Marriage and Family 83, 75–85. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12716.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ji, Y, Wu, X, Sun, S and He, G (2017) Unequal care, unequal work: Toward a more comprehensive understanding of gender inequality in post-reform urban China. Sex Roles 77, 765–778. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0751-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalmijn, M (2020) Guilt in adult mother–child relationships: Connections to intergenerational ambivalence and support. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 75, 879–888. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gby077.Google ScholarPubMed
Katz-Wise, SL, Priess, HA and Hyde, JS (2010) Gender-role attitudes and behavior across the transition to parenthood. Developmental Psychology 46, 18–28. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017820.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, RC and McLeod, JD (1984) Sex differences in vulnerability to undesirable life events. American Sociological Review 49, 620–631. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095420.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, K, Zarit, SH, Birditt, KS and Fingerman, KL (2020) Typology of parent–child ties within families: Associations with psychological well-being. Journal of Family Psychology 34, 448–458. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000595.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krull, JL and Arruda, EH (2015) Growth curve modelling. In Cautin, RL and Lilienfeld, SO (eds), The Encyclopedia of Clinical Psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118625392.wbecp570.Google Scholar
Lee, HJ and Szinovacz, ME (2016) Positive, negative, and ambivalent interactions with family and friends: Associations with well-being. Journal of Marriage and Family 78, 660–679. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, J, Shih, R, Feeney, K and Langa, KM (2014) Gender disparity in late-life cognitive functioning in India: Findings from the longitudinal ageing study in India. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 69, 603–611. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbu017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lei, L (2013) Sons, daughters, and intergenerational support in China. Chinese Sociological Review 45, 26–52. https://doi.org/10.2753/CSA2162-0555450302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lei, X, Hu, Y, McArdle, JJ, Smith, JP and Zhao, Y (2012) Gender differences in cognition among older adults in China. Journal of Human Resources 47, 951–971. https://doi.org/10.1353/jhr.2012.0033.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lendon, JP, Silverstein, M and Giarrusso, R (2014) Ambivalence in older parent–adult child relationships: Mixed feelings, mixed measures. Journal of Marriage and Family 76, 272–284. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, T and Zhang, Y (2023) Intergenerational relationships across multiple children and older parents’ depressive symptoms in China—A resource contingency perspective. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 78, 925–937. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbad004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, W (2021) Live in the Heart: Intergenerational Relationships and Practice of Filial Piety (in Chinese). Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House.Google Scholar
Livingston, G, Huntley, J, Sommerlad, A, Ames, D, Ballard, C, Banerjee, S, Brayne, C, Burns, A, Cohen-Mansfield, J, Cooper, C, Costafreda, SG, Dias, A, Fox, N, Gitlin, LN, Howard, R, Kales, HC, Kivimäki, M, Larson, EB, Ogunniyi, A, Orgeta, V, Ritchie, K, Rockwood, K, Sampson, EL, Samus, Q, Schneider, LS, Selbæk, G, Teri, L and Mukadam, N (2020) Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2020 report of the Lancet Commission. Lancet 396, 413–446. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30367-6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lüscher, K and Pillemer, K (1998) Intergenerational ambivalence: A new approach to the study of parent-child relations in later life. Journal of Marriage and Family 60, 413–425. https://doi.org/10.2307/353858.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, B and Cafasso, L (1992) Gender differences in caregiving: Fact or artifact? Gerontologist 32, 498–507. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/32.4.498.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miyawaki, CE and Liu, M (2019) Gender differences in cognitive impairment among the old and the oldest‐old in China. Geriatrics and Gerontology International 19, 586–592. https://doi.org/10.1111/ggi.13666.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peng, C, Kwok, CL, Law, YW, Yip, PSF and Cheng, Q (2019) Intergenerational support, satisfaction with parent–child relationship and elderly parents’ life satisfaction in Hong Kong. Aging and Mental Health 23, 428–438. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2017.1423035.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silverstein, M and Bengtson, VL (1997) Intergenerational solidarity and the structure of adult child-parent relationships in American families. American Journal of Sociology 103, 429–460. https://doi.org/10.1086/231213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silverstein, M, Chen, X and Heller, K (1996) Too much of a good thing? Intergenerational social support and the psychological well-being of older parents. Journal of Marriage and Family 58, 970–982. https://doi.org/10.2307/353984.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suitor, JJ, Gilligan, M, Pillemer, K, Fingerman, KL, Kim, K, Silverstein, M and Bengtson, VL (2017) Applying within-family differences approaches to enhance understanding of the complexity of intergenerational relations. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 73, 40–53. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbx037.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suitor, JJ, Sechrist, J, Plikuhn, M, Pardo, ST and Pillemer, K (2008) Within-family differences in parent-child relations across the life course. Current Directions in Psychological Science 17, 334–338. www.jstor.org/stable/20183314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, PA and Umberson, D (2018) Do older parents’ relationships with their adult children affect cognitive limitations, and does this differ for mothers and fathers? Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 73, 1133–1142. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbx009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Umberson, D, Chen, MD, House, JS, Hopkins, K and Slaten, E (1996) The effect of social relationships on psychological well-being: Are men and women really so different? American Sociological Review 61, 837–857. https://doi.org/10.2307/2096456.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Gaalen, RI and Dykstra, PA (2006) Solidarity and conflict between adult children and parents: A latent class analysis. Journal of Marriage and Family 68, 947–960. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2006.00306.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ward, RA (2008) Multiple parent–adult child relations and well-being in middle and later life. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 63, S239–S247. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/63.4.S239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ward, RA, Spitze, G and Deane, G (2009) The more the merrier? Multiple parent-adult child relations. Journal of Marriage and Family 71, 161–173. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00587.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
World Health Organization (2021) Global Status Report on the Public Health Response to Dementia. Available at www.who.int/publications-detail-redirect/9789240033245 (accessed 1 September 2021).Google Scholar
Xie, Y and Zhu, H (2009) Do sons or daughters give more money to parents in urban China? Journal of Marriage and Family 71, 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00588.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yahirun, J (2022) Mothers and their ‘difficult’ children: How offspring problems shape maternal well-being. Gerontologist 63, 617–618. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnac103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yang, J, Ariela, L, Todd, J and Zheng, Y (2013) Intergenerational latent solidarity class and relationship quality among Chinese: Implications for self-reported health and well-being. Acta Psychologica Sinica 45, 811–824. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1041.2013.00811.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yang, Q and Jia, J (2022) Association of intergenerational relationships with cognitive impairment among Chinese adults 80 years of age or older: Prospective cohort study. BMC (BioMed Central) Geriatrics 22, . https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-022-03529-y.Google ScholarPubMed
Yuan, J and Grühn, D (2021) Time effects of informal caregiving on cognitive function and well-being: Evidence from ELSA. Gerontologist 61, 341–351. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnaa114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhang, Z (2006) Gender differentials in cognitive impairment and decline of the oldest old in China. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 61, S107–S115. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/61.2.S107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhu, H and Walker, A (2018) Pension system reform in China: Who gets what pensions? Social Policy and Administration 52, 1410–1424. https://doi.org/10.1111/spol.12368.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhu, S, Hu, J and Efird, JT (2012) Role of social support in cognitive function among elders. Journal of Clinical Nursing 21, 2118–2125. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2702.2012.04178.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Supplementary material: File

Zhang et al. supplementary material

Zhang et al. supplementary material
Download Zhang et al. supplementary material(File)
File 153.3 KB