Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-4rdpn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-13T00:40:54.529Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Bioarchaeology and Taphonomy of Violence at Castle Rock and Sand Canyon Pueblos, Southwestern Colorado

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Kristin A. Kuckelman ,
Ricky R. Lightfoot  and
Debra L. Martin
Kristin A. Kuckelman
Affiliation:
Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, 23390 Road K, Cortez, CO 81321-9408
Ricky R. Lightfoot
Affiliation:
Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, 23390 Road K, Cortez, CO 81321-9408
Debra L. Martin
Affiliation:
US Southwest and Mexico Program, Hampshire College, 893 West St., Amherst, MA 01002-3359
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Violence and the role of violence have emerged recently as topics important to understanding the prehistory of the northern Southwest. Recent excavations at Castle Rock and Sand Canyon pueblos, two thirteenth-century sites in the Mesa Verde region of southwestern Colorado, bring new data to bear on these subjects. Field contexts and the results of bone and myoglobin analyses indicate that nonlethal and lethal violence occurred in both of these villages and that additional modifications to bodies and bones occurred near the time of death. Around A.D. 1280, at least eight individuals at Sand Canyon Pueblo died violently, and at least 41 individuals died at Castle Rock. During or after the warfare event that ended the occupation of Castle Rock, some bodies were dismembered, bones were broken, crushed, and heat altered; a few bones were reamed, and the end of one bone was polished. Several incidents of violence and probable anthropophagy (the consumption of human flesh) have been documented in the Mesa Verde region for the mid-A.D. 1100s; however, this analysis of violent events in the late A.D. 1200s establishes a critical link between probable anthropophagy and warfare, and links both with the depopulation of the region.

Résumé

Résumé

La violencia y la función de la violencia han emergido recientemente como materia importante para lograr un mejor entendimiento de la prehistoria de la región sudoeste del norte. Excavaciones recientes efectuadas en los pueblos de Castle Rock y Sand Canyon (dos sitios datando del sigio XIII en la región de Mesa Verde ubicadas en el sudoeste de Colorado), han aportado nuevos datos que arrojan luz sobre estos temas. Los contextos de campo junto con los resultados de análisis de hueso y mioglobina han indicado que la violencia (la no mortífera tanto como la mortífera), existió en estos pueblos. Además, han indicado que modificaciones adicionales a los cadóveres y a los huesos sucedieron alrededor del momento en que ocurdó la muerte. Cerca del año 1280 d.de J.C., se murieron por lo menos ocho personas en el pueblo de Sand Canyon mediante métodos violentos, y por lo menos 41 personas se murieron de la misma manera en el pueblo de Castle Rock. Durante el evento de guerra que terminó la ocupación de Castle Rock o poco después, algunos de los cadáveres fueron desmembrados y los huesos fueron quebrados, triturados y sufrieron alteraciones térmicas. Algunos de los huesos fueron escariados y el extremo de uno de los huesos estaba pulido. Varios incidentes de violencia y posible antropofagia (o sea el consumo de la came humana) han sido documentados en la región de Mesa Verde a mediados del sigio Xi d.de J.C. Sin embargo, este análisis de los eventos violentos que sucedieron al fin del siglo XII d.de J.C. establece un vínculo importante entre la guerra y la posibilidad de antropofagia, además de vincular ambos con el despoblamiento de la región.

Type
Articles
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 67 , Issue 3 , July 2002 , pp. 486 - 513
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for American Archaeology 2002

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Adams, E. C. 1984 Plan of Operations for Work to be Conducted on Bureau of Land Management Administered Land. Crow Canyon Campus, Center for American Archeology, Cortez, Colorado. Report submitted to the Bureau of Land Management. San Juan Resource Area Office, Durango, Colorado.Google Scholar
Aguadé, C. M. P., and Lory, J. M. 1997 Evidence for Human Sacrifice, Bone Modification and Cannibalism in Ancient Mexico. In Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past, edited by Martin, D. L. and Frayer, D. W., pp. 217–239. Gordon and Breach, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.Google Scholar
Allen, G. M. 1981 Canid Remains from Pueblo Bonito and Pueblo del Arroyo. In The Material Culture of Pueblo Bonito, pp. 385–389. Reprinted. J & L Reprint Company, Lincoln. Originally published 1954, Miscellaneous Collections vol. 124. Smithsonian Institutio, Washington, D. C. Google Scholar
Allen, W. H., Merbs, C. F., and Kirkby, W. H. 1985 Evidence for Prehistoric Scalping at Nuvakwewtaqa (Chavez Pass) and Grasshopper Ruin, Arizona. In Health and Disease in the Prehistoric Southwest, edited by Merbs, C. F. and Miller, R. J., pp. 23–42. Anthropological Research Papers no. 34. Arizona State University, Tempe.Google Scholar
Amsden, C. A. 1976 Prehistoric Southwesterners from Basketmaker to Pueblo. Reprinted. Southwest Museum, Los Angeles. Originally published 1949.Google Scholar
Baker, S. A. 1994 The Question of Cannibalism and Violence in the Anasazi Culture: A Case Study from San Juan County, Utah. Blue Mountain Shadows 13:30–41.Google Scholar
Bennett, K. A. 1975 Skeletal Remains. Publications in Archeology 7F. National Park Service, Washington, D. C. Google Scholar
Billman, B. R, Lambert, P. M., and Leonard, B. L. 2000 Cannibalism, Warfare, and Drought in the Mesa Verde Region During the Twelfth Century A.D. American Antiquity 65:145–178.Google Scholar
Bradley, B. A. 1986 Annual Report of Test Excavations at Sand Canyon Pueblo (5MT765). Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado. Unpublished report submitted to the Bureau of Land Management, San Juan Resource Area Office, Durango, Colorado.Google Scholar
Bradley, B. A. 1988 Annual Report on the Excavations at Sand Canyon Pueblo (5MT765), 1987 Field Season. Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado. Unpublished report submitted to the Bureau of Land Management, San Juan Resource Area Office, Durango, Colorado.Google Scholar
Bradley, B. A. 1992 Excavations at Sand Canyon Pueblo. In The Sand Canyon Archaeological Project: A Progress Report, edited by Lipe, W. D., pp. 79–97. Occasional Papers no. 2, Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Bradley, B. A. 1993 Planning, Growth, and Functional Differentiation at a Prehistoric Pueblo: A Case Study from SW Colorado. Journal of Field Archaeology 20:23–42.Google Scholar
Bradley, B. A. 1996 Pitchers to Mugs: Chacoan Revival at Sand Canyon Pueblo. Kiva 61:241–255.Google Scholar
Bradley, B. A., and Churchill, M. J. 1995 Annual Report of the 1993 Excavations at Sand Canyon Pueblo (5MT765). Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado. Report submitted to the Bureau of Land Management, San Juan Resource Area Office, Durango, Colorado.Google Scholar
Bradley, B. A., and Lightfoot, R. R. 1986 Field Manual. Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Bradley, C. S. 1998 Obligation and Children: Attitudes of Obligation in the Nurturing and Interpretation of Children. Unpublished Master's thesis, Vermont College of Norwich University.Google Scholar
Bradley, C. S. 1999 Obligation and the Children of Sand Canyon Pueblo. Paper presented at the 64th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Chicago.Google Scholar
Bradley, C. S., and Romasco, M. M. 1994 Letter Report on Isolated/Disarticulated Human Bone Recovered from Castle Rock Pueblo (5MT1825) and Woods Canyon Pueblo (5MT11842) during the 1994 Field Season. Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado. Report submitted to the Bureau of Land Management, San Juan Resource Area, Durango, Colorado.Google Scholar
Brew, J. O. 1949 The History of Awatovi. In Franciscan Awatovi: The Excavation and Conjectural Reconstruction of a 17th-Century Spanish Mission Establishment at a Hopi Indian Town in Northeastern Arizona, authored by Montgomery, R. G. , Smith, W., and Brew, >J. O., pp. 1–43. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology vol. 36, Reports of the Awatovi Expedition Report no. 3, Harvard University, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Buikstra, J. E., and Gordon, C. C. 1980 Individuation in Forensic Science Study: Decapitation. Journal of Forensic Sciences 25:246–259.Google Scholar
Buikstra, J. E., and Ubelaker, D. H. (editors) 1994 Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Arkansas Archeological Survey Research Series No. 44. Arkansas Archeological Survey, Fayetteville, Arkansas.Google Scholar
Cordell, L. S. 1984 Prehistory of the Southwest. Academic Press, Orlando.Google Scholar
Crow Canyon Archaeological Center 2000a The Castle Rock Pueblo Database [HTML Title]. Available: http://www.crowcanyon.org/castlerockdatabase. Date of use: 2 February 2001.Google Scholar
Crow Canyon Archaeological Center 2000b Field Manual. Crow Electronic document, http://www.crowcanyon.org/ResearchReports/FieldManual/Fm_Titlepage.htm.Google Scholar
Darling, J. A. 1998 Mass Inhumation and the Execution of Witches in the American Southwest. American Anthropologist 100: 732–752.Google Scholar
Dean, J. S. 1996 Demography, Environment, and Subsistence Stress. In Evolving Complexity and Environmental Risk in the Prehistoric Southwest, edited by Tainter, J. A. and Tainter, B. B.; pp. 25–56. Proceedings Vol. 24, Santa Fe Institute Studies in the Sciences of Complexity. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Douglass, A. E. 1929 The Secret of the Southwest Solved by Talkative Tree Rings. National Geographic 56:737–770.Google Scholar
Eddy, F. W., Kane, A. E., and Nickens, P. R. 1984 Southwest Colorado Prehistoric Context: Archaeological Background and Research Directions. Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation, Colorado Historical Society, Denver.Google Scholar
Ellis, F. H. 1951 Patterns of Aggression and the War Cult in Southwestern Pueblos. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 7:177–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferguson, R. B. 1984 Introduction: Studying War. In Warfare, Culture, and Environment, edited by Ferguson, R. B., pp. 1–81. Academic Press, Orlando.Google Scholar
Ferguson, R. B. 1997 Violence and War in Prehistory. In Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past, edited by Martin, D. L. and Frayer, D. W., pp. 321–355. Gordon and Breach, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.Google Scholar
Fetterman, J., and Honeycutt, L. 1990 In the Fremont-Anasazi Transition Zone: Excavations in Verdure Canyon. Woods Canyon Archaeological Consultants. Submitted to the Bureau of Land Management, San Juan Resource Area Office, Moab, Utah.Google Scholar
Fewkes, J. W. 1898 Archaeological Expedition to Arizona in 1895. In Seventeenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology Google Scholar
Fewkes, J. W. 1895-96, Part 2, pp. 519–744. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Google Scholar
Flinn, L., Turner, C. G. II, and Brew, A. 1976 Additional Evidence for Cannibalism in the Southwest: The Case of LA 4528. American Antiquity 41:308–318.Google Scholar
Force, E. R., and Howell, W. K. 1997 Holocene Depositional History and Anasazi Occupation in McElmo Canyon, Southwestern Colorado. Arizona State Museum Archaeological Series no. 188. University of Arizona, Tucson.Google Scholar
France, D. L. 1988 A Human Burial From Dolores County, Colorado. Cultural Resource Series no. 24. Bureau of Land Management, Denver.Google Scholar
Frayer, D. W. 1997 Ofnet: Evidence for a Mesolithic Massacre. In Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past, edited by Martin, D. L. and Frayer, D. W., pp. 181–216. Gordon and Breach, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.Google Scholar
Geib, P. R. 1996 Formative Cultures and Boundaries: Reconsideration of the Fremont and Anasazi. In Glen Canyon Revisited, edited by Geib, P. R., pp. 98–114. University of Utah Anthropological Papers no. 119. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Genovés, S. C. 1967 Proportionality of Long Bones and Their Relation to Stature Among Mesoamericans. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 26:67–78.Google Scholar
Gregg, J. B., Zimmerman, L. J., Steele, J. P., Ferwerda, H., and Gregg, P. S. 1981 Ante-Mortem Osteopathology at Crow Creek. Plains Anthropologist 25:287–300.Google Scholar
Haag, W. G. 1966 Dogs from Tse-ta’a. In Excavations at Tse-ta’a, authored by Steen, C., pp. 131–135. Archeological Research Series 9. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Haas, J., and Creamer, W. 1996 The Role of Warfare in the Pueblo III Period. In The Prehistoric Pueblo World, A.D. 1150-1300, edited by Adler, M. A., pp. 205–213. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Haglund, W. D., Reay, D. T., and Swindler, D. R. 1988 Tooth Mark Artifacts and Survival of Bones in Animal Scavenged Human Skeletons. Journal of Forensic Sciences 33:985–997.Google Scholar
Hawley, F. 1950 The Mechanics of Perpetuation in Pueblo Witchcraft. In For the Dean: Essays in Anthropology in Honor of Byron Cummings on His Eighty-Ninth Birthday, September 20, 1950, edited by Reed, E. K. and King, D. S., pp. 143–158. Hohokam Museums Association, Tucson, Arizona.Google Scholar
Hayes, A. C, and Lancaster, J. A. 1975 Badger House Community, Mesa Verde National Park. Publications in Archeology 7-E. National Park Service, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Hoffman, J. M. 1985 Preliminary Report on Human Skeletal Remains from Sand Canyon Pueblo (5MT765) and the Duckfoot Site (5MT3868): 1984 Excavations of the Crow Canyon Center for Southwestern Archeology. Ms. on file, Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Hoffman, J. M. 1987 Preliminary Report on Human Skeletal Remains from Sand Canyon Pueblo (5MT765): 1985 Excavations of the Crow Canyon Archeological Center. Ms. on file, Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Hoffman, J. M. 1990 Report on Human Skeletal Remains from Sand Canyon Pueblo (5MT765): 1987 Excavations of the Crow Canyon Archaeological Center. Ms. on file, Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Holmer, R. N., and Weder, D. G. 1980 Common Post-Archaic Projectile Points of the Fremont Area. In Fremont Perspectives, edited by Madsen, D. B., pp. 55–68. Antiquities Section Selected Papers no. 16, Utah State Historical Society.Google Scholar
Holmes W, H. 1878 Report on the Ancient Ruins of Southwestern Colorado, Examined During the Summers of 1875 and 1876. In Tenth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories for 1876, pp. 382–408. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Hooton, E. A. 1930 The Indians of Pecos Pueblo: A Study of Their Skeletal Remains. Papers of the Southwestern Expedition no. 4. The Indians of Pecos Pueblo. Yale University Press, New Haven.Google Scholar
Hurst, W. B., and Turner, C. G. II 1993 Rediscovering the “Great Discovery”: Wetherill's First Cave 7 and its Record of Basketmaker Violence. In Anasazi Basketmaker, Papers from the 1990 Wetherill-Grand Gulch Symposium, edited by Atkins, V. M., pp. 142–191. Cultural Resource Series no. 24. U. S. Bureau of Land Management, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Jackson, W. H. 1981 [1878] Ancient Ruins in Southwestern Colorado. In Hayden Survey, 1874-1876: Mesa Verde and the Four Corners, authored by Jackson, W. H. and Holmes, W. H. , pp. 369–381. Reprinted. Bear Creek Publishing, Ouray, Colorado. Originally published in Tenth Annual Report of the United States Geology and Geography Survey, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Jamieson, J. B. 1983 An Examination of Prisoner-Sacrifice and Cannibalism at the St. Lawrence Iroquoian Roebuck Site. Canadian Journal of Archaeology 7(2):159–175.Google Scholar
Jett, S. C. 1964 Pueblo Indian Migrations: An Evaluation of the Possible Physical and Cultural Determinants. American Antiquity 29:281–300.Google Scholar
Karhu, S. 2000 Mortuary Practices and Population Health at Two Yellow Jacket Hamlets, 5MT1 and 5MT3. University of Colorado Museum, Boulder, Colorado.Google Scholar
Katzenberg, M. A. 1992 Human Skeletal Remains from Sand Canyon Pueblo Excavated from 1988 to 1991. Ms. on file, Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Katzenberg, M. A. 1995a Skeletal Evidence for Anasazi Violence in Southwestern Colorado. Paper presented at the 60th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Katzenberg, M. A. 1995b Report of Bone Chemistry Studies from the Sand Canyon Locality. Ms. on file, Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Katzenberg, M. A. 1996 Human Skeletal Remains from Castle Rock Pueblo Excavated in 1992. Ms. on file, Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Katzenberg, M. A. 1999 Human Skeletal Remains. In The Sand Canyon Archaeological Project: Site Testing. CD-ROM, Vers. 1.0 Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Katzenberg, M. A., and Walker, P. 1992 Perimortem Cranial Trauma in Prehistoric Native Americans in Southwest Colorado. Paper Presented at the Paleopathology Meetings, Las Vegas.Google Scholar
Kice, D. A. 1990 Preliminary Report on Human Skeletal Remains from Sand Canyon, Colorado: 1988 Excavations of the Crow Canyon Archaeological Center. Ms. on file, Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Katzenberg, M. A. 1991 Preliminary Report on Human Skeletal Remains from Sites 5MT765, 5MT3901, 5MT3930, and 5MT3936: 1988 Excavations of the Crow Canyon Archaeological Center. Ms. on file, Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Kidder, A.V. 1924 An Introduction to the Study of Southwestern Archaeology with a Preliminary Account of the Excavations at Pecos. Yale University Press, New Haven.Google Scholar
Kleidon, J., and Bradley, B. 1989 Annual Report of the 1988 Excavations at Sand Canyon Pueblo (5MT765). Unpublished report submitted to the Bureau of Land Management, San Juan Resource Area Office, Durango, Colorado.Google Scholar
Kuckelman, K. A. 1986 Excavations at Aldea Sierritas (Site 5MT2854), a Basketmaker III/Pueblo I Habitation. In Dolores Archaeological Program: Anasazi Communities at Dolores: Early Anasazi Sites in the Sagehen Flats Area, compiled by Kane, A. E. and Gross, G. T. , pp. 283–417. Bureau of Reclamation, Engineering and Research Center, Denver Google Scholar
Kuckelman, K. A. 2000a The Final Days of Castle Rock Pueblo. In The Archaeology of Castle Rock Pueblo: A Thirteenth-Century Village in Southwestern Colorado [HTML Title], edited by Kuckelman, K. A.. Available: http://www.crowcanyon.org/researchreports/castlerock/start.htm. Date of use: 1 September 2000.Google Scholar
Kuckelman, K. A. 2000b Rock Art. In The Archaeology of Castle Rock Pueblo: A Thirteenth-Century Village in Southwestern Colorado [HTML Title], edited by Kuckelman, K. A.. Available: http://www.crowcanyon.org/researchreports/castlerock/start.htm. Date of use: 1 September 2000.Google Scholar
Kuckelman, K. A. 2000c Oral History. In The Archaeology of Castle Rock Pueblo: A Thirteenth-Century Village in Southwestern Colorado [HTMLTitle], edited by Kuckelman, K. A.. Available: http://www.crowcanyon.org/researchreports/castlerock/start.htm. Date of use: 1 September 2000.Google Scholar
Kuckelman, K. A. 2000d Trade. In The Archaeology of Castle Rock Pueblo: A Thirteenth-Century Village in Southwestern Colorado [HTML Title], edited by Kuckelman, K. A. . Available: http://www.crowcanyon.org/researchreports/castlerock/start.htm. Date of use: 1 September 2000.Google Scholar
Kuckelman, K. A. 2001 Skull Trauma and Warfare in the Ancient Southwest. Paper presented at the at the 66th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans.Google Scholar
Kuckelman, K. A. 2002 Thirteenth-Century Warfare in the Central Mesa Verde Region. In Seeking the Middle Place: Archaeology and Ancient Communities in the Mesa Verde Region, edited by R.H. Wilshusen and Varien, M. D.. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, in press.Google Scholar
Kuckelman, K. A. (editor) 2000 The Archaeology of Castle Rock Pueblo: A Thirteenth- Century Village in Southwestern Colorado [HTML Title], Available: http://www.crowcanyon.org/castlerock. Date of use: 1 September 2000.Google Scholar
Kuckelman, K. A., Lightfoot, R. R., and Martin, D. L. 2000 Changing Patterns of Violence in the Northern San Juan Region. Kiva 66:147–165.Google Scholar
Lambert, P. M. 1997 Patterns of Violence in Prehistoric Hunter-gatherer Societies of Coastal Southern California. In Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past, edited by Martin, D. L., and Frayer, D. W., pp. 77–109. Gordon and Breach, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.Google Scholar
Lambert, P. M. 1999 Human Skeletal Remains. In The Puebloan Occupation of the Ute Mountain Piedmont, Volume 5: Environmental and Bioarchaeological Studies, edited by Billman, B. R., pp. 111–161. Publications in Archaeology, no. 22. Soil Systems, Phoenix, Arizona.Google Scholar
Lambert, P. M., Billman, B. R., and Leonard, B. L. 2000 Explaining Variability in Mutilated Human Bone Assemblages from the American Southwest: A Case Study from the Southern Piedmont of Sleeping Ute Mountain, Colorado. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 10:49–64.Google Scholar
LeBlanc, S. A. 1999 Prehistoric Warfare in the American Southwest. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Lekson, S. H. 1988 The Idea of the Kiva in Anasazi Archaeology. The Kiva 53:213–234.Google Scholar
Lekson, S. H. 1990 The Great Pueblo Period in Southwestern Archaeology. In Pueblo Style and Regional Architecture, edited by Markovich, N. C., Preiser, W. F. E., and Sturm, F. G., pp. 64–77. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.Google Scholar
Lekson, S. H. 1999a The Center of the Universe: Did Chaco Canyon Launch a Dynasty that Ruled the Southwest for Centuries? Discovering Archaeology May/June:57–64.Google Scholar
Lekson, S. H. 1999b Chaco Death Squads. Archaeology May/June:68–73.Google Scholar
Leonard, B. L., Lambert, P. M., and Marlar, R. A. 2001 Cannibalism, Witch-Killing, Parsimony, and Empiricism. Paper presented at the 66th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans.Google Scholar
Lightfoot, R. R., and Kuckelman, K. A. 1994 Warfare and the Abandonment of the Mesa Verde Region. Paper presented at the 59th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Anaheim.Google Scholar
Lightfoot, R. R., and Kuckelman, K. A. 1995 Ancestral Pueblo Violence in the Northern Southwest. Paper presented at the 60th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Lightfoot, R. R., and Kuckelman, K. A. 2001 A Case of Warfare in the Mesa Verde Region. In Deadly Landscapes: Case Studies in Prehistoric Southwestern Warfare, edited by Rice, G. E. and LeBlanc, S. A., pp. 51–64. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Lightfoot, R. R., Lipe, W. D., Kuckelman, K. A., and Katzenberg, M. A. 1992 Proposal for Intensive Excavations at Castle Rock Pueblo (5MT1825). Proposal submitted to the Bureau of Land Management, San Juan Resource Area Office, Durango, Colorado. Ms. on file, Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Linton, Ralph 1944 Nomad Raids and Fortified Pueblos. American Antiquity 10:28–32.Google Scholar
Lipe, W. D. 1989 Social Scale of Mesa Verde Anasazi Kivas. In The Architecture of Social Integration in Prehistoric Pueblos, edited by Lipe, W. D. and Hegmon, M., pp. 53–71. Occasional Paper no. 1. Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Lipe, W. D. 1992 Introduction. In The Sand Canyon Archaeological Project: A Progress Report, edited by Lipe, W. D., pp. 1–10. Occasional Paper no. 2, Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Lipe, W. D., and Bradley, B. A. 1986 Prehistoric Pueblo Organization, Goodman Point Locality, Southwestern Colorado. Proposal submitted to the National Science Foundation. Ms. on file, Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Lipe, W. D., and Bradley, B. A. 1988 Prehistoric Pueblo Organization, Sand Canyon Locality, Southwestern Colorado. Proposal submitted to the National Science Foundation. Ms. on file, Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado. 1999a Pueblo II (A.D. 900-1150). In Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Southern Colorado River Basin, edited by Lipe, W. D., Varien, M. D., and Wilshusen, R. H., pp. 224–289. Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, Denver.Google Scholar
Lipe, W. D., and Varien, M. D. 1999b Pueblo III (A.D. 1150-1300) - In olorado Prehistory: A Context for the Southern Colorado River Basin, edited by Lipe, W. D., Varien, M. D., and Wilshusen, R. H., pp. 290–352. Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, Denver.Google Scholar
Lomatuway’ma, M., Lomatuway’ma, L.|, and Namingha, S. 1993 Hopi Ruin Legends, edited by Malotki, E.. Northern Arizona University and University of Nebraska, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Mackey, J., and Green, R. C. 1979 Largo-Gallina Towers: An Explanation. American Antiquity 44:144–154.Google Scholar
Mair, L. 1969 Witchcraft. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.Google Scholar
Malotki, E., and Gary, K. 1999 Hopisosont–“Human Cravers”: Echoes of Anthropophagy in Hopi OralTraditions. European Review of Native American Studies 13(1):9–15.Google Scholar
Malville, N. J. 1989 Two Fragmented Human Bone Assemblages from Yellow Jacket, Southwestern Colorado. Kiva 55:3–22.Google Scholar
Marlar, J. E., Marlar, R. A., Reinhard, K. J., Leonard, B. L., and Lambert, P. M. 2000 Microscopic and Molecular Evidence for the Human Origin of the Coprolite from the “Cannibalism” Site at Cowboy Wash (5MT10010). Southwestern Lore 66(4):14–22.Google Scholar
Marlar, R. 2000 A Biochemical Assay to Test for Cannibalism at a Prehistoric Puebloan Site . Paper presented at the 73rd annual Pecos Conference, Dolores, Colorado. Google Scholar
Marlar, R., Leonard, B., Billman, B., Lambert, P., and Marlar, J. 2000 Biochemical Evidence of Cannibalism at a Prehistoric Puebloan Site in Southwestern Colorado. Nature 407:74–78.Google Scholar
Martin, D. L. 1997 Violence Against Women in the La Plata River Valley (A.D. 1000-1300). In Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past, edited by Martin, D. L. and Frayer, D. W , pp. 45–75. Gordon and Breach, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.Google Scholar
Martin, D. L. 1998 Isolated Bone Data Collection: Protocol Information. Ms. on file, Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Matheny, R. T. 1962 An Archaeological Survey of Upper Montezuma Canyon, San Juan County Utah. Unpublished Master's Thesis, Department of Archaeology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.Google Scholar
Milner, G. R., Anderson, E., and Smith, V. G. 1991 Warfare in Late Prehistoric West-Central Illinois. American Antiquity 56:581–603.Google Scholar
Mindeleff, V 1989 [1891] A Study of Pueblo Architecture in Tusayan and Cibola. Reprinted. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Originally Published 1891, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Morris, E. H. 1939 Archaeological Studies in the La Plata District, Southwestern Colorado and Northwestern New Mexico. Publication no. 519. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Nass, G. G., and Bellantoni, N. F. 1982 A Prehistoric Multiple Burial From Monument Valley Evidencing Trauma and Possible Cannibalism. The Kiva 47:257–271.Google Scholar
Nickens, P. R. 1975 Prehistoric Cannibalism in the Mancos Canyon, Southwestern Colorado. The Kiva 40:283–293.Google Scholar
Nordenskiöld, Gustaf 1979 [1893] The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde, Southwestern Colorado: Their Pottery and Implements. Translated by Morgan, D. L.. Reprinted. Rio Grande Press, Glorieta, New Mexico. Originally published 1893, Norstedt, P. A. and Söner, Stockholm.Google Scholar
Ortman, S. G. 2000 Artifacts. In The Archaeology of Castle Rock Pueblo: A Thirteenth-Century Village in Southwestern Colorado [HTML Title]. Available: http://www.crowcanyon.org/researchreports/castlerock/start.htm. Date of use: 1 SeptemberGoogle Scholar
Ortman, S. G. 2000.Google Scholar
O’Shea, J. M., and Bridges, P. S. 1989 The Sargent Site Ossuary (25CU28), Custer County, Nebraska. Plains Anthropologist 34(123):7–21Google Scholar
Owsley, D. W., Berryman, H. E., and Bass, W M. 1977 Demographic and Osteological Evidence for Warfare at the Larson Site, South Dakota. Plains Anthropologist Memoir 13:119–131.Google Scholar
Parsons, E. C. 1969 Introduction. In Hopi Journal of Alexander M. Stephen, edited by Parsons, E. C.. Reprinted. AMC press, New York. Originally published 1936, Columbia University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Parsons, E. C. 1974 Some Aztec and Pueblo Parallels. In The Mesoamerican Southwest: Readings in Archaeology, Ethnohistory and Ethnology, edited by Hedrick, B., Kelley, J., and C. Riley, pp. 131–172. Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Parsons, E. C. 1996 Pueblo Indian Religion. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln. Originally published 1939, the University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Petersen, K. L. 1992 A Warm and Wet Little Climatic Optimum and a Cold and Dry Little Ice Age in the Southern Rocky Mountains, U.S.A. Paper prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Environmental Restoration and Waste Management. Westinghouse Hanford Company, Richland, Washington.Google Scholar
Pierce, C, Varien, M. D., Driver, J. C., Gross, G. T., and Keleher, J. W 1999 Artifacts In The Sand Canyon Archaeological Project: Site Testing [HTML Title], edited by Varien, M. D.. Available: http://www.crowcanyon.org/researchreports/sitetesting/start.htm. Date of use: 1 September 2000. Also available on CD-ROM, Vers. 1.0 Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Sanday, P. R. 1986 Divine Hunger: Cannibalism as a Cultural System. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Simmons, M. 1974 Witchcraft in the Southwest: Spanish and Indian Supernaturalism on the Rio Grande. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Smith, M. O. 1997 Osteological Indications of Warfare in the Archaic Period of the Western Tennessee Valley. In Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past, edited by Martin, D. L. and Frayer, D. W, pp. 241–265. Gordon and Breach, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.Google Scholar
Snow, C. C, and Luke, J. L. 1984 The Oklahoma City Child Disappearances of 1967: Forensic Anthropology in the Identification of Skeletal Remains. In Human Identification: Case Studies in Forensic Anthropology, edited by Rathbun, T. A. and Buikstra, J. E., pp. 253–277. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.Google Scholar
Spitz, W. U. 1973 Blunt Force Injury. In Medicolegal Investigation of Death, edited by Spitz, W. U. and Fisher, R. S., pp. 122–150. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.Google Scholar
Stephen, A. M. 1969 Hopi Journal of Alexander M. Stephen, edited by Parsons, E. C.. Reprinted. AMC press, New York. Originally publishedGoogle Scholar
Stephen, A. M. 1936, Columbia University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Titiev, M. 1992 Old Oraibi: A Study of the Hopi Indians of Third Mesa. Reprinted. University of New Mexico, Albuquerque. Originally published 1944, Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, vol. 22, no. 1, Harvard University, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Turner, C. G II 1993 Cannibalism in Chaco Canyon: The Charnel Pit Excavated in 1926 at Small House Ruin by Frank Roberts H. H., Jr. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 91:421–439.Google Scholar
Turner, C. G II, and Morris, N. T. 1970 A Massacre at Hopi. American Antiquity 35:320–331.Google Scholar
Turner, C. G II, and Turner, J. A. 1990 Perimortem Damage to Human Skeletal Remains from Wupatki National Monument, Northern Arizona. Kiva 55:187–212.Google Scholar
Turner, C. G II, and Turner, J. A. 1992 The First Claim for Cannibalism in the Southwest: Walter Hough's 1901 Discovery at Canyon Butte Ruin 3, Northeastern Arizona. American Antiquity 57:661–682.Google Scholar
Turner, C. G II, and Turner, J. A. 1999 Man Corn: Cannibalism and Violence in the Prehistoric American Southwest. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Turner, C. G II, Turner, J. A., and Green, R. C. 1993 Taphonomic Analysis of Anasazi Skeletal Remains from Largo-Gallina Sites in Northwestern New Mexico. Journal of Anthropological Research 49:83–110.Google Scholar
Van West, C. R. 1994 Modeling Prehistoric Agricultural Productivity in Southwestern Colorado: A GIS Approach. Reports of Investigations no. 67. Department of Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman, and Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Van West, C. R., and Dean, J. S. 2000 Environmental Characteristics of the A.D. 900-1300 Period in the Central Mesa Verde Region. Kiva 66:19–44.Google Scholar
Varien, M. D. (editor) 1999 The Sand Canyon Archaeological Project: Site Testing [HTML Title]. Available: http://www.crowcanyon.org/researchreports/sitetesting/start.htm. Date of use: 1 SeptemberGoogle Scholar
Varien, M. D. (editor) 2000. Also available on CD-ROM, Vers. 1.0 Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Varien, M. D., and Kuckelman, K. A. 1999 Introduction. In The Sand Canyon Archaeological Project: Site Testing [HTML Title], edited by Varien, M. D.. Available: http://www.crowcanyon.org/researchreports/sitetesting/start.htm. Date of use: 1 September 2000. Also available on CD-ROM, Vers. 1.0 Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Waters, F. 1977 Book of the Hopi. Reprinted. Penguin Books, New York. Originally published 1963, Viking Penguin, USA.Google Scholar
White, T. D. 1991 Human Osteology. Academic Press, San Diego.Google Scholar
White, T. D. 1992 Prehistoric Cannibalism at Mancos 5MTUMR-2346. Princeton University Press, Princeton.Google Scholar
Wilcox, D. R., and Haas, J. 1994 The Scream of the Butterfly: Competition and Conflict in the Prehistoric Southwest. In Themes in Southwest Prehistory, edited by George, J. Gumerman, pp. 211–238. School of American Research Press, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, R. G. 1997 Violence Against Women: Raiding and Abduction in Prehistoric Michigan. In Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past, edited by Martin, D. L. and Frayer, D. W., pp. 21–43. Gordon and Breach, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.Google Scholar
Woodbury, R. B. 1954 Prehistoric Stone Implements of Northeastern Arizona. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology Vol. 34, No. 6. Harvard University, Cambridge Google Scholar