Hostname: page-component-7b9c58cd5d-9k27k Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-03-14T06:39:20.979Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Formation of Flakes

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Brian Cotterell  and
Johan Kamminga
Brian Cotterell
Affiliation:
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Sydney, Sydney, 2006, Australia
Johan Kamminga
Affiliation:
Department of Prehistory, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T., 2601, Australia
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

An understanding of the mechanics involved in flake formation provides an opportunity for deriving more behavioral information from flake and flake scar morphology. The mechanics of flake formation are directly relevant to the identification of prehistoric flaking techniques and stone tool use. In this paper we provide a model of flake formation that accounts for much of the variation in flake morphology. Flakes can form in a number of ways and despite popular belief they are not all of the conchoidal variety. The bending flake is common in use wear though it is often misidentified as a conchoidal flake. A third major type of flake, the compression flake, is a common product of bipolar impact. To account for the wide variation in flake morphology we follow a tripartite scheme of flake formation comprising initiation, propagation, and termination phases, within which different mechanisms can operate.

Type
Articles
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 52 , Issue 4 , October 1987 , pp. 675 - 708
Copyright
Copyright © Society for American Archaeology 1987

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Benbow, J. J., and Roesler, F. C. 1957 Experiments on Controlled Fractures. Proceedings of the Physical Society Ser. B 70 : 201–211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bordes, F., and Crabtree, D. E. 1969 The Corbiac Blade Technique and Other Experiments. Tebiwa 12 : 1-22.Google Scholar
Cook, J., and Gordon, J. E. 1964 A Mechanism for the Control of Crack Propagation in All-brittle Systems. Proceedings of the Royal Society A 282 : 508–520.Google Scholar
Cotterell, B. 1964 On the Nature of Moving Cracks. Journal of Applied Mechanics 31 : 12–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cotterell, B. 1965 Velocity Effects in Fracture Propagation. Applied Materials Research 4 : 227–232.Google Scholar
Cotterell, B. 1966 Notes on the Paths and Stability of Cracks. International Journal of Fracture Mechanics 2 : 526–533.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cotterell, B. 1968 Fracture Propagation in Organic Glasses. International Journal of Fracture Mechanics 4 : 209–217.Google Scholar
Cotterell, B. 1972 Brittle Fracture in Compression. International Journal of Fracture 6 : 195–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cotterell, B., and Kamminga, J. 1979 The Mechanics of Flaking. In Lithic Use-wear Analysis, edited by Hayden, B., pp. 97–112. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Cotterell, B., and Kamminga, J. 1986 Finals on Stone Flakes. Journal of Archaeological Science, 13 : 451–461.Google Scholar
Cotterell, B., Kamminga, J., and Dickson, F. P. 1985 The Essential Mechanics of Conchoidal Flaking. International Journal of Fracture 20 : 205–221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cotterell, B., and Rice, J. R. 1980 Slightly Curved or Kinked Cracks. International Journal of Fracture 16 : 155–169.Google Scholar
Crabtree, D. E. 1968 Mesoamerican Polyhedral Cores and Prismatic Blades. American Antiquity 33 : 446–478.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crabtree, D. E. 1972 An Introduction to Flintworking. Occasional Papers of the Idaho State Museum No. 28. Pocatello.Google Scholar
Evans, J. 1872 The Ancient Stone Implements, Weapons, and Ornaments of Great Britain. Longmans, London.Google Scholar
Faulkner, A. 1972 Mechanical Principles of Flint Working. Ph. D. dissertation, Washington State University. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan.Google Scholar
Faulkner, A. 1974 Mechanics of Eraillure formation. Newsletter of Lithic Technology, 3 : 4–11.Google Scholar
Faulkner, A. 1984 Examining Chipped Stone Tools. Wisconsin Archeologist 65 : 507–525.Google Scholar
Frank, F. C, and Lawn, B. R. 1967 On the Theory of Hertzian Fracture. Proceedings of the Royal Society 299 : 291–306.Google Scholar
Fullagar, R. L. K. 1982 What's the use? An Analysis of Aire Shelter II, Glenaire, Victoria. Master's (qualifying) thesis, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia.Google Scholar
Gol'dstein, R. V., and Salganik, R. L. 1974 Brittle Fracture of Solids with Arbitrary Cracks. International Journal of Fracture 10 : 507–525.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gould, R. A. 1973 Use-wear on Western Desert Aboriginal Stone Tools : A Reply to Messrs. Hayden and Kamminga. Newsletter of Lithic Technology 2(1-2) : 9–13.Google Scholar
Gramberg, J. 1965 Axial Cleavage, A Significant Process in Mining and Geology. Engineering Geology 1 : 31–72.Google Scholar
Griffith, A. A. 1920 The Phenomena of Rupture and Flow in Solids. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A221 : 163–198.Google Scholar
Hamilton, G. M., and Goodman, L. E. 1966 The Stress Field Created by a Circular Sliding Contact. Journal of Applied Mechanics 33 : 371–376.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartley, N. E. W., and Wilshaw, R. 1973 Deformation and Fracture of Synthetic a-quartz. Journal of Materials Science 8 : 265–278.Google Scholar
Hayden, B., and Kamminga, J. 1973 Gould, Koster and Sontz on ‘Microwear' : A Critical Review. Newsletter of Lithic Technology 2(1-2) : 3-8, 13–14.Google Scholar
Hayden, B., and Kamminga, J. 1979 The First CLUW : An Introduction to Use Wear. In Lithic Use-wear Analysis, edited by Hayden, B., pp. 1–13. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Hertz, H. 1896 Hertz's Miscellaneous Papers. Reprinted. Macmillan, London. Originally published 1882, Verhandlungen des Vereins zur Beforderung des Gewerbefleisses 61 : 449.Google Scholar
Ho Ho Classification and Nomenclature Committee Report 1979 In Lithic Use-wear Analysis, edited by Hayden, B., pp. 133–137. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Holloway, P. G. 1973 The Physical Properties of Glass. Wykenhan Publications, London.Google Scholar
Holzhausen, G. R., and Johnson, A. M. 1979 Analyses of Longitudinal Splitting of Uniaxially Compressed Rock Cylinders. Rock Mechanics, Mining Science and Geomechanical Abstracts 16 : 163–177.Google Scholar
Jaeger, J. C, and Cook, N. G. W. 1969 Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics. Methuen, London.Google Scholar
Kamminga, J. 1978 Journey Into the Microcosms. A Functional Analysis of Certain Classes of Prehistoric Australian Stone Tools. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Sydney, Australia.Google Scholar
Kamminga, J. 1979 The Nature of Use-polish and Abrasive Smoothing on Stone Tools. In Lithic Use-wear Analysis, edited by Hayden, B., pp. 143–157. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Kamminga, J. 1982 Over the Edge. Functional Analysis of Australian Stone Tools. Occasional Papers in Anthropology No. 12. Anthropology Museum, Queensland University, Brisbane, Australia.Google Scholar
Kamminga, J. 1985 The Pirri Graver, Australian Aboriginal Studies 1985/11 : 2–25.Google Scholar
Keeley, L. H. 1977 An Experimental Study of Microwear Traces on Selected British Palaeolithic Implements. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Oxford University, Oxford, England.Google Scholar
Keeley, L. H. 1980 Experimental Determination of Stone Tool Uses. A Microwear Analysis. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
von Kerkhof, F., and Miiller-Beck, H. 1969 Zur bruchmechanischen Deutung der Schlagmarken au Steingeraten. Glastechnische Berichte 42 : 439–448.Google Scholar
Kleindienst, M. R., and Keller, C. M. 1976 Towards a Functional Analysis of Hand-axes and Cleavers : The Evidence from Eastern Africa. Man (n. s.) 11 : 176–187.Google Scholar
Kolsky, H. 1963 Stress Waves in Solids. Reprinted. Dover Publications, New York. Originally published 1953, Clarendon Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Langitan, F. B., and Lawn, B. R. 1969 Hertzian Fracture Experiments on Abraded Glass Surfaces as Definitive Evidence for an Energy Balance Explanation of Auerbach's Law. Journal of Applied Physics 40 : 4009–4017.Google Scholar
Lawn, B. R., and Marshall, D. B. 1979 Mechanics of Microcontact Fracture in Brittle Solids. In Lithic Use-wear Analysis, edited by Hayden, B., pp. 63–82. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Lawn, B. R., and Swain, M. V. 1975 Microfracture Beneath Point Indentation in Brittle Solids. Journal of Materials Science 10 : 113–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lawn, B., and Wilshaw, T. R. 1975a Fracture of Brittle Solids. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.Google Scholar
Lawn, B., and Wilshaw, T. R. 1975b Indentation Fracture : Principles and Applications. Journal of Materials Science 10 : 1049–1081.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lawrence, R. A. 1979 Experimental Evidence for the Significance of Attributes Used in Edge-damage Analysis. In Lithic Use-wear Analysis, edited by Hayden, B., pp. 113–121. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Macalister, R. A. S. 1921 A Text Book of European Archaeology, vol. II. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.Google Scholar
Mandeville, M. D. 1973 A Consideration of the Thermal Treatment of Chert. Plains Anthropologist 18 : 177–202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mewhinney, H. 1957 A Manual for Neanderthals. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Newcomer, M. H. 1976 Spontaneous Retouch. Second International Symposium on Flint. Staringia 3 : 62–64.Google Scholar
Odell, G. H. 1977 The Application of Micro-wear Analysis to the Lithic Component of an Entire Prehistoric Settlement : Methods, Problems and Functional Reconstructions. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Odell, G. H. 1981 The Mechanics of Use-breakage of Stone Tools : Some Testable Hypotheses. Journal of Field Archaeology 8 : 197–209.Google Scholar
Olausson, D. S. 1983 Experiments to Investigate the Effects of Heat Treatment on Use-wear on Flint Tools. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 49 : 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ravi-Chandar, K., and Knauss, W. G. 1984 An Experimental Investigation into Dynamic Fracture. III. On Steady State Crack Propagation and Crack Branching. International Journal of Fracture 26 : 141–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rick, J. W., and Chappell, S. 1983 Thermal Alteration of Silica Materials in Technological and Functional Perspective. Lithic Technology 12 : 69–80.Google Scholar
Rooke, P. P., and Cartwright, D. V. 1976 Compendium of Stress Intensity Factors. H. M. Stationery Office, London.Google Scholar
Schindler, D. L., Hatch, J. W., Hay, C. A., and Bradt, R. C. 1982 Aboriginal Thermal Alteration of a Central Pennsylvanian Jasper : Analytical and Behavioral Implications. American Antiquity 47 : 526–544.Google Scholar
Speth, J. D. 1972 Mechanical Basis of Percussion Flaking. American Antiquity 37 : 34–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Speth, J. D. 1974 Experimental Investigations Into Hard Hammer Percussion Flaking. Tewiba 17 : 7–36.Google Scholar
Speth, J. D. 1975 Miscellaneous Studies in Hard Hammer Percussion Flaking : The Effects of Oblique Impact. American Antiquity 40 : 203–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Streit, R., and Finnie, I. 1980 An Experimental Investigation of Crack Path Directional Stability. Experimental Mechanics 20 : 17–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tada, H., Paris, P. C., and Irwin, G. R. 1973 The Stress Analysis of Cracks Handbook, Del Research, Hellertown, Pennsylvania.Google Scholar
Timoshenko, S., and Goodier, J. N. 1951 Theory of Elasticity. 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York.Google Scholar
Tixier, J. 1974 Glossary for the Description of Stone Tools. Translated by Newcomer, M. H.. Newsletter of Lithic Technology. Special Publication. The Center for Archaeological Research, University of Texas, San Antonio.Google Scholar
Toth, N. 1985 The Oldowan Reassessed : A Close Look at Early Stone Artifacts. Journal of Archaeological Science 12 : 101–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tsirk, A. 1979 Regarding Fracture Initiations. In Lithic Use-wear Analysis, edited by Hayden, B., pp. 83–96. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Williams, M. L. 1957 On the Stress Distribution at the Base of a Stationary Crack. Journal of Applied Mechanics 24 : 105-114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar