Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T08:44:10.012Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Statistical Analysis of Paradigmatic Class Richness Supports Greater Paleoindian Projectile-Point Diversity in the Southeast

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Metin I. Eren ,
Anne Chao ,
Chun-Huo Chiu ,
Robert K. Colwell ,
Briggs Buchanan ,
Matthew T. Boulanger ,
John Darwent  and
Michael J. O’Brien
Metin I. Eren*
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Kent State University, Kent, OH, 44242; Department of Archaeology, Cleveland Museum of Natural History, Cleveland, OH 44106-1767, U.S.A.
Anne Chao
Affiliation:
Institute of Statistics, National Tsing Hua University, Hsin-Chu, 30043, Taiwan (chao@stat.nthu.edu.twotterfinder@yahoo.com.tw)
Chun-Huo Chiu
Affiliation:
Institute of Statistics, National Tsing Hua University, Hsin-Chu, 30043, Taiwan (chao@stat.nthu.edu.twotterfinder@yahoo.com.tw)
Robert K. Colwell
Affiliation:
University of Colorado Museum of Natural History, Boulder, CO 80309; Departmento de Ecologia, Universidade Federal de Goiás, CP 131,74.001-970, Goiânia, GO, Brasil; Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT (colwell@uconn.edu)
Briggs Buchanan
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of Tulsa, Tulsa, OK 74104, (briggs-buchanan@utulsa.edu)
Matthew T. Boulanger
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, 75275-0235 (boulangerm@missouri.edu)
John Darwent
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA 95616-8522 (jadarwent@ucdavis.edu)
Michael J. O’Brien
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of Missouri,Columbia, MO, 65211 (ObrienM@missouri.edu)
*
(m.i.erenlO@gmail.com)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Ronald Mason’s hypothesis from the 1960s that the southeastern United States possesses greater Paleoindian projectile-point diversity than other regions is regularly cited, and often assumed to be true, but in fact has never been quantitatively tested. Even if valid, however, the evolutionary meaning of this diversity is contested. Point diversity is often linked to Clovis “origins,” but point diversity could also arise from group fissioning and drift, admixture, adaptation, or multiple founding events, among other possibilities. Before archaeologists can even begin to discuss these scenarios, it is paramount to ensure that what we think we know is representative of reality. To this end, we tested Mason’s hypothesis for the first time, using a sample of 1,056 Paleoindian points from eastern North America arui employing paradigmatic classification and rigorous statistical tools used in the quantification of ecological biodiversity. Our first set of analyses, which compared the Southeast to the Northeast, showed that the Southeast did indeed possess significantly greater point-class richness. Although this result was consistent with Mason’s hypothesis, our second set of analyses, which compared the Upper Southeast to the Lower Southeast and the Northeast showed that in terms of point-class richness the Upper Southeast > Lower Southeast > Northeast. Given current chronometrie evidence, we suggest that this latter result is consistent with the suggestion that the area of the Ohio, Cumberland, and Tennessee River valleys, as well as the mid-Atlantic coastal plain, were possible initial and secondary “staging areas” for colonizing Paleoindian foragers moving from western to eastern North America.

La hipótesis de Ronald Mason sobre el hecho de que la diversidad de puntas de proyectil es mayor en el SE de los Estados Unidos que en otras regiones se cita habitualmente y se asume con frecuencia como cierta. Sin embargo, nunca ha sido comprobada cuantitativamente. Incluso, aun siendo válida, el sentido evolutivo de tal diversidad es cuestionable. La variabilidad de puntas se relaciona frecuentemente con el “origen” de los Clovis, pero podría obedecer también a la división y deriva del grupo, a la mezcla, a procesos adaptativos, o a múltiples eventos radicados en el sudeste, entre diversas posibilidades. Antes incluso de que tales escenarios puedan comenzar a discutirse desde la Arqueología, es de suma importancia asegurar que lo que creemos saber es representativo de la realidad. Con esta finalidad, hemos comprobado la hipótesis de Mason por primera vez, usando una muestra de 1056 puntas paleoindias del Este de América del Norte, con una clasificación paradigmática y herramientas estadísticas rigurosas para la cuantificación de la diversidad biológica. Nuestro primer conjunto de análisis, que comparaba el SE con el NE, mostraba que la diversidad de las puntas de proyectil en el ámbito suroriental es, incluso, significativamente mayor. A pesar de que este resultado es coherente con la hipótesis de Mason, nuestro segundo conjunto de análisis que comparaba el Sudeste superior frente al inferior y frente al Noreste, mostraba que tal diversidad decrece desde el Sudeste superior hasta el último. Dado las actuales evidencias cronométricas, sugerimos de manera provisional que este resultado es coherente con el sugerencia que la zona de Ohio, Cumberland y el valle del Río Tennessee, así como la llanura costera del Atlántico central fueron posibles “escalas” en la colonización de los recolectores paleoindios, que se desplazaban desde el oeste al este de Norteamérica.

Type
Reports
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 81 , Issue 1 , January 2016 , pp. 174 - 192
Copyright
Copyright © 2016 by the Society for American Archaeology.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Anderson, David G. 1990 The Paleoindian Colonization of Eastern North America: A View from the Southeastern United States. In Early Paleoindian Economies of Eastern North America, edited by Kenneth B. Tankersely and Barry L. Isaac, pp. 163–216. JAI Press, Greenwich, Connecticut.Google Scholar
Anderson, David G. 1996 Models of Paleoindian and Early Archaic Settlement in the Southeastern United States. In The Paleoindian and Early Archaic Southeast, edited by David G. Anderson and Kenneth E. Sassaman, pp. 29–57. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Anderson, David G. 2013 Paleoindian Archaeology in Eastern North America: Current Approaches and Future Directions. In In the Eastern Fluted Point Tradition, edited by Joseph A. M. Gingerich, pp. 371–103. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Anderson, David G., and Faught, Michael K. 1998 The Distribution of Fluted Paleoindian Projectile Points: Update 1998. Archaeology of Eastern North America 26:163–187.Google Scholar
Anderson, David G., and Faught, Michael K. 2000 Palaeoindian Artefact Distributions: Evidence and Implications. Antiquity 74:507–513.Google Scholar
Anderson, David G., and Gillam, J. C. 2000 Paleoindian Colonization of the Americas: Implications from an Examination of Physiography, Demography, and Artifact Distribution. American Antiquity 65:43–66.Google Scholar
Anderson, David G., Jerald Ledbetter, R., and O’Steen, Lisa 1990 Paleoindian Period Archaeology of Georgia. Laboratory of Archaeology Series Report No. 28. University of Georgia, Athens.Google Scholar
Anderson, David G., Shane Miller, D., Yerka, Stephen J., Christopher Gillam, J., Johanson, Erik N., Anderson, Derek T., Goodyear, Albert C., and Smallwood, Ashley M. 2010 PIDB A (Paleoindian Database of the Americas) 2010: Current Status and Findings. Archaeology of Eastern North America 38:63–89.Google Scholar
Barton, C. Michael, Clark, Geoffrey A., Yesner, David R., and Pearson, Georges A. (editors) 2004 The Settlement of the American Continents: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Human Biogeography. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Beck, Charlotte, and Jones, George T. 1989 Bias and Archaeological Classification. American Antiquity 54:244–263.Google Scholar
Beck, Charlotte, and Jones, George T. 2010 Clovis and Western Stemmed: Population Migration and the Meeting of Two Technologies in the Intermountain West. American Antiquity 75:81–116.Google Scholar
Bradley, Bruce A., Collins, Michael B., and Hemmings, Andrew 2010 Clovis Technology. International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Brennan, Louis A. 1982 A Compilation of Fluted Points of Eastern North America by Count and Distribution: An AENA Project. Archaeology of Eastern North America 10:27–46.Google Scholar
Broster, John B., Norton, Mark, Shane Miller, D., Tune, Jesse W., and Baker, Jon D. 2013 Tennessee Paleoindian Record: The Cumberland and Lower Tennessee River Watersheds. In In the Eastern Fluted Point Tradition, edited by Joseph A.M. Gingerich, pp. 299–314. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Bryan, Allen L. 1991 The Fluted-point Tradition in the Americas—One of Several Adaptations to Late Pleistocene American Environments. In Clovis: Origins and Adaptations, edited by Robson Bonnichsen and Karen L. Turnmire, pp. 15–33. Center for the Study of the First Americans, Corvallis, Oregon.Google Scholar
Buchanan, Briggs 2003 The Effects of Sample Bias on Paleoindian Fluted Point Recovery in the United States. North American Archaeologist 24:311–338.Google Scholar
Buchanan, Briggs, Eren, Metin I., Boulanger, Matthew T., and O’Brien, Michael J. 2015 Size, Shape, Scars, and Spatial Patterning: A Quantitative Assessment of Late Pleistocene (Clovis) Point Resharpening. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 3:11–21.Google Scholar
Byers, Douglas S. 1959 The Eastern Archaic: Some Problems and Hypotheses. American Antiquity 24:233–256.Google Scholar
Carr, Philip, and Bradbury, Andrew 2000 Contemporary Lithic Analysis and Southeastern Archaeology. Southeastern Archaeology 19:120–134.Google Scholar
Chao, Anne 1984 Nonparametric Estimation of the Number of Classes in a Population. Scandinavian Journal of Statistics 11:265–270.Google Scholar
Chao, Anne 2005 Species Estimation and Applications. In Encyclopedia of Statistical Sciences, 2nd ed., vol. 12, edited by N. Balakrishnan, Campbell B. Read, and Brani Vidakovic, pp. 7907–7916. Wiley, New York.Google Scholar
Chao, Anne, Gotelli, Nicholas J., Hsieh, T. C., Sander, Elizabeth L., Ma, K. H., Colwell, Robert K., and Ellison, Aaron M. 2014 Rarefaction and Extrapolation with Hill Numbers: A Framework for Sampling and Estimation in Species Diversity Studies. Ecological Monographs 84:45–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chao, Anne, and Jost, Lou 2012 Coverage-Based Rarefaction and Extrapolation: Standardizing Samples by Completeness Rather Than Size. Ecology 93:2533–2547.Google Scholar
Chao, Anne, Wang, Y. T., and Jost, Lou 2013 Entropy and the Species Accumulation Curve: A Novel Entropy Estimator via Discovery Rates of New Species. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 4:1091–1100.Google Scholar
Colwell, Robert K., Chao, Anne, Gotelli, Nicholas J., Lin, Shang-Yi, Mao, Chang Xuan, Chazdon, Robin L., and Longino, John T. 2012 Models and Estimators Linking Individual-based and Sample-based Rarefaction, Extrapolation and Comparison of Assemblages. Journal of Plant Ecology 5:3–21.Google Scholar
Colwell, Robert K., and Coddington, Jonathan A. 1994 Estimating Terrestrial Biodiversity through Extrapolation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 345:101–118.Google Scholar
Dunnell, Robert C. 1971 Systematics in Prehistory. Free Press, New York.Google Scholar
Ellis, Chistopher 2004 Understanding “Clovis” Fluted Point Variability in the Northeast: A Perspective from the Debert Site, Nova Scotia. Canadian Journal of Archaeology 28:205–253.Google Scholar
Eren, Metin I. 2012 Were Unifacial Tools Regularly Hafted by Clovis Foragers in the North American Lower Great Lakes Region? An Empirical Test of Edge Class Richness and Attribute Frequency among Distal, Proximal, and Lateral Tool-Section. Journal of Ohio Archaeology 2:1–15.Google Scholar
Eren, Metin I. 2013 The Technology of Stone Age Colonization: An Empirical, Regional-Scale Examination of Clovis Unifacial Stone Tool Reduction, Allometry, and Edge Angle from the North American Lower Great Lakes Region. Journal of Archaeological Science 40:2101–2112.Google Scholar
Eren, Metin I., Buchanan, Briggs, and O’Brien, Michael J. 2015 Social Learning and Technological Evolution during Clovis Colonization of the New World. Journal of Human Evolution 80:159–170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eren, Metin I., Chao, Anne, Hwang, Wen-Han, and Colwell, Robert K. 2012 Estimating the Richness of a Population When the Maximum Number of Classes Is Fixed: A Nonparametric Solution to an Archaeological Problem. PLOS ONE 7(5):e34179.Google Scholar
Eren, Metin I., and Redmond, Brian 2011 Clovis Blades at Paleo Crossing (33ME274), Medina County, Ohio. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 36:173–194.Google Scholar
Eren, Metin I., Patten, Robert J., O’Brien, Michael J., and Meltzer, David J. 2013 Refuting the Technological Cornerstone of the Ice-Age Atlantic Crossing Hypothesis. Journal of Archaeological Science 40:2934–2941.Google Scholar
Eren, Metin I., Patten, Robert J., O’Brien, Michael J., and Meltzer, David J. 2014 More on the Rumor of “Intentional Overshot Flaking” and the Purported Ice-Age Atlantic Crossing. Lithic Technology 39:55–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faught, Michael K. 2006 Paleoindian Archaeology in Florida and Panama: Two Circumgulf Regions Exhibiting Waisted Lanceolate Projectile Points. In Ice Age Occupations of the Americas; A Hemispheric Perspective, edited by Juliet E. Morrow and Cristóbal Gnecco, pp. 164–183. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Ferring, C. Reid 2001 The Archaeology and Paleoecology of the Aubrey Clovis Site (41DN479), Denton County, Texas. Center for Environmental Archaeology, Department of Geography, University of North Texas, Denton.Google Scholar
Gini, Corrado 1912 Variabilità e Mutabilità . Reprinted in Memorie di Metodologia Statistica, edited by E. Pizetti and T. Salvemini. Libreria Eredi Virgilio Veschi, Rome.Google Scholar
Good, I. J. 1953 The Population Frequencies of Species and the Estimation of Population Parameters. Biometrika 40:237–264.Google Scholar
Good, I. J. 2000 Turing’s Anticipation of Empirical Bayes in Connection with the Cryptanalysis of the Naval Enigma. Journal of Statistical Computation and Simulation 66:101–111.Google Scholar
Gotelli, Nicholas J., and Chao, Anne 2013 Measuring and Estimating Species Richness, Species Diversity, and Biotic Similarity from Sampling Data. In Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, 2nd ed., vol. 5, edited by Simon A. Levin, pp. 195–211. Academic Press, Waltham, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Gotelli, Nicholas J., and Colwell, Robert K. 2011 Estimating Species Richness. In Frontiers in Measuring Biodiversity, edited by Anne E. Magurran and Brian J. McGill, pp. 39–54. Oxford University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Greenmari, Emerson F. 1963 The Upper Palaeolithic and the New World. Current Anthropology 4:41–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haavie, J., Saetre, G.-P., and Moum, T. 2000 Discrepancies in Population Differentiation at Microsatellites, Mitochondrial DNA and Plumage Colour in the Pied Flycatcher – Inferring Evolutionary Processes. Molecular Ecology 9:1137–1148.Google Scholar
Halligan, Jessi 2013 Reconstructing the Pleistocene Environment of the Greater Southeast. In In the Eastern Fluted Point Tradition, edited by Joseph A.M. Gingerich, pp. 58–72. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Hamilton, Marcus J., and Buchanan, Briggs 2007 Spatial Gradients in Clovis-Age Radiocarbon Dates across North America Suggest Rapid Colonization from the North. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104:15625–15630.Google Scholar
Haynes, C. Vance 1983 Fluted Points in the East and West. Archaeology of Eastern North America 11:24–26.Google Scholar
Haynes, Gary 2002 The Early Settlement of North America: The Clovis Era. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Henrich, Joseph 2004 Demography and Cultural Evolution: Why Adaptive Cultural Processes Produced Maladaptive Losses in Tasmania. American Antiquity 69:197–221.Google Scholar
Hill, Mark O. 1973 Diversity and Evenness: A Unifying Notation and Its Consequences. Ecology 54:427–432.Google Scholar
Holliday, Vance T., and Shane Miller, D. 2014 The Clovis Landscape. In Paleoamerican Odyssey, edited by Kelly E. Graf, Caroline V. Ketron, and Michael R. Waters, pp. 221–245. Texas A&M University Press, College Station.Google Scholar
Jost, Lou 2007 Partitioning Diversity into Independent Alpha and Beta Components. Ecology 88:2427–2439.Google Scholar
Kilby, David 2015 A Regional Perspective on Clovis Blades and Caching Behavior. In Clovis: On the Edge of a New Understanding, edited by Ashley M. Smallwood and Thomas A. Jennings, pp. 145–159. Texas A&M University Press, College Station.Google Scholar
Leberg, P. L. 2002 Estimating Allelic Richness: Effects of Sample Size and Bottlenecks. Molecular Ecology 11:2445–2449.Google Scholar
Lepper, Bradley T. 1983 Fluted Point Distributional Patterns in the Eastern United States: A Contemporary Phenomenon. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 8:269–285.Google Scholar
Lepper, Bradley T. 1985 The Effects of Cultivation and Collecting on Ohio Fluted Point Finds: A Reply to Seeman and Prufer. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 10:241–250.Google Scholar
Loebel, Thomas J. 2012 Pattern or Bias? A Critical Evaluation of Midwestern Fluted Point Distributions Using Raster Based GIS. Journal of Archaeological Science 39:1205–1217.Google Scholar
Lycett, Stephen J. 2008 Acheulean Variation and Selection: Does Handaxe Symmetry Fit Neutral Expectations? Journal of Archaeological Science 35:2640–2648.Google Scholar
Lycett, Stephen J., and Chauhan, Parth R. 2010 Analytical Approaches to Palaeolithic Technologies: An Introduction. In New Perspectives on Old. Stones, edited by Stephen J. Lycett and Parth R. Chauhan, pp. 1–22, Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Lycett, Stephen J., and von Cramon-Taubadel, Noreen 2008 Acheulean Variability and Hominin Dispersals: A Model-Bound Approach. Journal of Archaeological Science 35:553–562.Google Scholar
Lycett, Stephen J., and Norton, Christopher 2010 A Demographic Model for Palaeolithic Technological Evolution: The Case of East Asia and the Movius Line. Quaternary International 211:55–65.Google Scholar
Lyman, R. Lee 2008 Quantitative Paleozoology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Lyman, R. Lee, and VanPool, Todd 2009 Metric Data in Archaeology: A Study of Intra-Analyst and Inter-Analyst Variation. American Antiquity 74:485–504.Google Scholar
Mac Arthur, Robert H. 1965 Patterns of Species Diversity. Biological Review 40:510–533.Google Scholar
Magurran, Anne E. 2004 Measuring Biological Diversity. Blackwell, Malden, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Mason, Ronald J. 1962 The Paleo-Indian Tradition in Eastern North America. Current Anthropology 3:227–278.Google Scholar
Meltzer, David J. 1981 A Study of Style and Function in a Class of Tools. Journal of Field Archaeology 8:313–326.Google Scholar
Meltzer, David J. 1984 Late Pleistocene Human Adaptations in Eastern North America. Unpublished Ph D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Washington, Seattle.Google Scholar
Meltzer, David J. 1986 The Clovis Paleoindian Occupation of Texas: Results of the Texas Clovis Fluted Point Survey. Bulletin of the Texas Archeological Society 57:27–68.Google Scholar
Meltzer, David J. 2004 Modeling the Initial Colonization of the Americas: Issues of Scale, Demography, and Landscape Learning. In The Settlement of the American Continents: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Human Biogeography, edited by C. Michael Barton, Geoffrey A. Clark, David R. Yesner, and Georges A. Pearson, pp. 123–137. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Meltzer, David J. 2009 First Peoples in a New World: Colonizing Ice Age America. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Miller, D. Shane, and Gingerich, Joseph A. M. 2013a Paleoindian Chronology and the Eastern Fluted Point Tradition. In In the Eastern Fluted Point Tradition, edited by Joseph A.M. Gingerich, pp. 9–37. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Miller, D. Shane, and Gingerich, Joseph A. M. 2013b Regional Variation in the Terminal Pleistocene and Early Holocene Radiocarbon Record of Eastern North America. Quaternary Research 79:175–188.Google Scholar
Miller, D. Shane, Holliday, Vance T., and Bright, Jordan 2014 Clovis across the Continent. In Paleoamerican Odyssey, edited by Kelly E. Graf, Caroline V. Ketron, and Michael R. Waters, pp. 207–220. Texas A&M University Press, College Station.Google Scholar
Neiman, Fraser D. 1995 Stylistic Variation in Evolutionary Perspective: Inferences from Decorative Diversity and Interassemblage Distance in Illinois Woodland Ceramic Assemblages. American Antiquity 60:7–36.Google Scholar
Nolan, Kevin C, and Coo, Robert A. 2011 A Critique of Prehistoric Systematics in the Middle Ohio River Valley. North American Archaeologist 32:293–325.Google Scholar
O’Brien, Michael J., Boulanger, Matthew T., Buchanan, Briggs, Collard, Mark, and Lee Lyman, R. 2014 Innovation and Cultural Transmission in the American Paleolithic: Phylogenetic Analysis of Eastern Paleoindian Projectile-Point Classes. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 34:100–119.Google Scholar
O’Brien, Michael J., Buchanan, Briggs, Boulanger, Matthew T., Mesoudi, Alex, Collard, Mark, Eren, Metin I., Alex Bentley, R., and Lee Lyman, R. 2015 Transmission of Cultural Variants in the North American Paleolithic. In Learning Strategies and Cultural Evolution during the Paleolithic, edited by K. Aoki and A. Mesoudi, pp. 121–142. Springer: New York.Google Scholar
O’Brien, Michael J., Darwent, John, and Lee Lyman, R. 2001 Cladistics Is Useful for Reconstructing Archaeological Phylogenies: Palaeoindian Points from the Southeastern United States. Journal of Archaeological Science 28:1115–1136.Google Scholar
O’Brien, Michael J., and Lee Lyman, R. 2000 Applying Evolutionary Archaeology: A Systematic Approach. Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York.Google Scholar
O’Brien, Michael J., and Lee Lyman, R. 2002 The Epistemological Nature of Archaeological Units. Anthropological Theory 2:37–56.Google Scholar
O’Brien, Michael J., and Lee Lyman, R. 2009 Darwinism and Historical Archaeology. In International Handbook of Historical Archaeology, edited by Teresita Majewski and David Gaimster, pp. 227–252. Springer: New York.Google Scholar
O’Brien, Michael J., Lee Lyman, R., Saab, Youssef, Saab, Elias, Darwent, John, and Glover, Daniel S. 2002 Two Issues in Archaeological Phylogenetics: Taxon Construction and Outgroup Selection. Journal of Theoretical Biology 215:133–150.Google Scholar
Prasciunas, Mary M. 2011 Mapping Clovis: Projectile Points, Behavior, and Bias. American Antiquity 76:107–126.Google Scholar
Prugnolle, Franck, Mancia, Andrea, and Balloux, François 2005 Geography Predicts Neutral Genetic Diversity of Human Populations. Current Biology 15:159–160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, Frank H.H. 1939 The Folsom Problem in American Archaeology. In Smithsonian Institution Annual Report 1938, pp. 531–543. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Sanchez, Guadalupe, Holliday, Vance T., Gaines, Edmund P., Arroyo-Cabrales, Joaquín, Martínez-Tagüeña, Natalia, Kowler, Andrew, Lange, Todd, Hodgins, Gregory W. L., Mentzer, Susan M., and Sanchez-Morales, Ismael 2014 Human (Clovis)–Gomphothere (Cuvieronius sp.) Association ?13,390 Calibrated yBP in Sonora, Mexico. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111:10972–10977.Google Scholar
Seeman, Mark F, and Prufer, Olaf H. 1982 An Updated Distribution of Ohio Fluted Points. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 7:155–169.Google Scholar
Seeman, Mark F, and Prufer, Olaf H. 1984 The Effects of Cultivation and Collecting on Ohio Fluted Point Finds: A Cautionary Note. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 9:227–233.Google Scholar
Shannon, Claude E. 1948 The Mathematical Theory of Communication. Bell System Technical Journal 27:379–423.Google Scholar
Shennan, Stephen J. 2000 Population, Culture History, and the Dynamics of Culture Change. Current Anthropology 41:811–835.Google Scholar
Sholts, Sabrina B., Stanford, Dennis J., Flores, Louise M., and Wärmländer, Sebastian K. T. S. 2012 Flake Scar Patterns of Clovis Points Analyzed with a New Digital Morphometries Approach: Evidence for Direct Transmission of Technological Knowledge across Early North America. Journal of Archaeological Science 39:3018–3026.Google Scholar
Shott, Michael J. 2002 Sample Bias in the Distribution and Abundance of Midwestern Fluted Bifaces. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 27:89–l23.Google Scholar
Simpson, George G. 1943 Mammals and the Nature of Continents. American Journal of Science 241:1–31.Google Scholar
Smallwood, Ashley M. 2012 Clovis Technology and Settlement in the American Southeast: Using Biface Analysis to Evaluate Dispersal Models. American Antiquity 77:689–713.Google Scholar
Smallwood, Ashley M., and Jennings, Thomas A. (editors) 2015 Clovis: On the Edge of a New Understanding. Texas A&M University Press. College Station.Google Scholar
Smith, Heather L., Smallwood, Ashley M., and De-Witt, Thomas J. 2015 Defining the Normative Range of Clovis Fluted Point Shape Using Geographic Models of Geometric Morphometric Variation. In Clovis: On the Edge of a New Understanding, edited by Ashley M. Smallwood and Thomas A. Jennings, pp. 161-180. Texas A&M University Press, College Station.Google Scholar
Stanford, Dennis J. 1991 Clovis Origins and Adaptations: An Introductory Perspective. In Clovis: Origins and Adaptations, edited by Robson Bonnichsen and Karen L. Turnmire, pp. 1–13. Center for the Study of the First Americans, Corvallis, Oregon.Google Scholar
Stanford, Dennis J., and Bradley, Bruce A. 2012 Across Atlantic Ice: The Origin of America’s Clovis Culture. University of California Press, Berkeley.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steele, James, Adams, Jonathan, and Sluckin, Tim 1998 Modelling Paleoindian dispersals. World Archaeology 30:286–305.Google Scholar
Surovell, Todd A. 2009 Toward a Behavioral Ecology of Lithic Technology. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Tankersley, Kenneth B. 1989 Late Pleistocene Lithic Exploitation and Human Settlement in the Midwestern United States. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Indiana University, Bloomington.Google Scholar
Thulman, David K. 2006 A Reconstruction of Paleoindian Social Organization in North Central Florida. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Florida State University, Tallahassee.Google Scholar
Thulman, David K. 2012 Discriminating Paleoindian Point Types from Florida Using Landmark Geometric Morphometries. Journal of Archaeological Science 39:1599–1607.Google Scholar
Waters, Michael R., Forman, Steven L., Jennings, Thomas A., Nordt, Lee C., Driese, Steven G., Feinberg, Joshua M., Keene, Joshua L., Halligan, Jessi, Lindquist, Anna, Pierson, James, Hallmark, Charles T., Collins, Michael B., and Wiederhold, James 2011 The Buttermilk Creek Complex and the Origins of Clovis at the Debra L. Friedkin Site, Texas. Science 331:1599–1603.Google Scholar
Whittaker, John C., Caulkins, Douglas, and Kamp, Kathryn A. 1998 Evaluating consistency in typology and classification. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 5:129–164.Google Scholar
Wiant, Michael D. 1993 Exploring Paleoindian Site Distribution in Illinois. In Highways to the Past: Essays on Illinois Archaeology in Honor of Charles J. Bareis, edited by Thomas E. Emerson, Andrew C. Fortier, and Dale L. McElrath, pp. 108–118. Illinois Archaeological Survey, Champaign.Google Scholar
Williams, Stephen, and Stoltman, James B. 1965 An Outline of Southeastern United States Prehistory with Particular Emphasis on the Paleoindian Era. In The Quaternary of the United States, edited by Herbert E. Wright and David G. Frey, pp. 669–683. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: PDF

Eren et al. Supplementary Material

Supplementary Material

Download Eren et al. Supplementary Material(PDF)
PDF 1.7 MB
Supplementary material: PDF

Eren et al. Supplementary Material

Supplementary Material

Download Eren et al. Supplementary Material(PDF)
PDF 264.3 KB