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Armed Neutralities to 1780

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 April 2017

Carl J. Kulsrud
Carl J. Kulsrud*
Affiliation:
University of Louisville
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Extract

It is frequently asserted even today that the armed neutrality formed by the Northern Powers in 1780 constituted the first organized effort by neutral states to secure freedom of navigation on the high seas. Likewise, it is said that this league was promoted by Catherine II of Russia for the express purpose of protecting neutral rights.

Type
Research Article
Information
American Journal of International Law , Volume 29 , Issue 3 , July 1935 , pp. 423 - 447
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of International Law 1935

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References

1 Carusi, C. P., and Kojouharoff, O. D., “The First Armed Neutrality” (reprint from the National Law Review, Vol. IX, No. 1).

2 Ibid.

3 Grotius, Be Jure Belli ac Pads Libri Tres (Kelsey trans. 1925), Bk. Ill , Ch. 1, Art. 5, Sect. 4.

4 Ibid.

5 Thurloe, Collection of State Papers (1747), I, p. 224; Robinson, Collectanea Maritime (1801), p. 145 ff.

6 Thurloe, op. cit., II, p. 504 ff.

7 Ibid., I, p. 424 ff.

8 If the master of the ship under convoy was party to an attempt to violate the convoy rules he was to be held liable to forfeiture of his property in the ship. If he was not the owner or part owner he was to be kept in custody until he had redeemed himself by the payment of a sum of five hundred dollars.

9 No restrictions were placed upon those Swedish merchants who desired to carry on their trade with either belligerent without convoy.

10 Thurloe, op. cit., II, p. 504. Cf. Mirbach, Die Völkerrechtlichen Grundsätze der Durchsuchungsrecht zur See (1903), p. 74.

11 “Kong Christian den Pemtes egenhaendige Dagböger,” entries for December, 1689 and February, 1690, in Nyt Historisk Tidsskrift (1847). This work is hereafter cited as Jour. Chr. V.

12 Dumont, Corps universel diplomatique du droit des gens (1726-1731), V, part 2, p. 231, hereafter cited as Dumont.

13 Dumont, Corps universel diplomatique du droit des gens (1726-1731), V, part 2, p. 231, Arts. 1, S, 6, 7, 14.

14 Boye, De Vaebnede Neutralitetsforbund (1912), p. 32.

15 Sweden joined the league in 1614. See Dumont, V, part 2, p. 245, and cf. ibid., pp. 274, 276.

16 But see the Dano-Swedish treaty of 1645, in Dumont, VI, part 1, pp. 291, 292.

17 Cf. Söderquist, Le blocus maritime (1908), pp. 230-253. Relaxations were granted in the treaty of 1640 between Sweden and the Netherlands. See Dumont, VI, part 1, pp. 192, 193.

18 Boye, op. tit., p. 38, n. 1.

19 Ibid., p. 43, notes 4, 5.

20 Dumont, VI, part 2, p. 80, Art. 11.

21 Ibid., part 1, p. 192.

22 Cf. the Danish ordinance of 1659 in Robinson, Collectanea, p. 176.

23 Dumont, VI, part 2, p. 252. Cf. Boye, op. tit., pp. 41-44.

24 Cf. Hannibal Sehested's “political testament” in Boye, op. tit., p. 47.

25 Ibid., p. 49, n. 3.

26 Dumont, VII, part 1, p. 525.

27 Ibid., p. 431.

28 Ibid., part 2, p. 238.

29 Cf. Twiss, Law of Nations in Time of War (1875), p. 259.

30 Cf. the Danish ordinance of 1659 in Robinson, Collectanea, p. 176.

31 Dumont, VII, part 1, p. 431, Art. 19.

32 Letter to Groningius, in Pufendorf, De Jure Naturae et Gentium (1749), Bk. VIII, Ch. 6, Sect. 8, n. 1.

33 Anglo-Danish treaty of 1670, Dumont, VII, part 1, p. 132, Art. 20 and passport.

34 Anglo-Swedish treaty of 1661, ibid., VI, part 2, p. 384, Art. 12 and passport.

35 Swedish-Dutch treaty of 1679, ibid., VII, part 1, p. 432, Art. 22.

36 Franco-Swedish treaty of 1672, ibid., p. 166, Art. 23.

37 Jour. Chr. V, he. cit., entries for August, 1689.

38 Danish instructions to the Stadholder in Norway, in Boye, op. cit., p. 55, n. 1.

39 The value of the journal lies not alone in its record of the events of each day, but in its revelation of the motives which guided the King in his policy toward other states.

40 Jour. Chr. V, loc. cit, entries Jan. 9 to Feb. 10, 1690, passim.

41 Ibid., December, 1689, to March, 1690, passim.

42 Ibid., December 12, 1690.

43 Ibid., December 12, 19, 30, 1690.

44 Ibid., cf. the Franco-Danish treaty of 1691, in Boye, op. cit., pp. 65-66.

45 Jour. Chr. V, loc. cit., Dec. 12, 1690.

46 Jour. Chr. V., loc. cit., December, 1690, to March, 1691, passim.

47 See Boye, op. cit., p. 64.

48 Ibid., pp. 65-66.

49 Dumont, VII, part 2, p. 292.

50 See Boye, op. cit., p. 64. Further to protect neutral trade, provision was made for fitting out warships for ordinary cruising.

51 Jour. Chr. V, he. cit., April 9, 11, 23, and May 22, 1691.

52 Dumont, VII, part 2, pp. 292, 294.

53 Marsden, Documents Relating to Law and Custom of the Sea (1915-1916), II, p. 148 ff.

54 Boye, op. cit., p. 72.

55 Dumont, VII, part 2, p. 325

56 See Holm, “Om Danmarks deUagdse i Forhandlingerne om en Vaebnet Neutralitet fra 1778-1780,” in Dansk Hist. Tidss. (1865).

57 See Boye, op. (At., p. 77, n. 3.

58 Cf. English instructions against France of 1693, Marsden, II, pp. 414-419.

59 Lamberty, Mémoires pour servir à I'histoire du XVIImt siècle (1724-1740), IX, p. 226; Robinson, Collectanea, p. 167.

60 Flassan, Histoire génfralé et raisonnée de la diplomatic frangaise (1809), VI, p. 75.

61 Ibid., p. 113; Boye, op. cit., p. 105 ff.

62 Danske Tractater, mi-1800 (1882), p. 80.

63 Danske Tractater, 1751-1800 (1882), p. 80.

64 When she became involved in the war against Russia. Cf. Boethius, Sveriges Traktater med Frdmmande Makter, VTII, part 2, p. 322. See also the regulations of 1743, ibid., p. 325.

65 Asseburg, Denkwürdigkeiten (1848), p. 76.

66 Russia declared all Prussian ports blockaded, though the blockade was not made effective. Enemy property on board neutral ships was seized as good prize to the Russian captor. Boye, op. cit., p. 109.

67 For the Russian declaration of Feb. 28 (Mar. 10), 1780, see F. de Martens, RecueU des traités conclus par la Bussie avec les puissances étrangères, IX, p. 307.

68 Quoted by Holm in his “Forhandlungene om en Vaebnet Neutralitet,” loe. cit.

69 Cf. the Russian note to Sweden, July 30,1793, in Annual Register 1793, p. 175, and the Anglo-Russian treaty of Mar. 25, 1793, in G. F. von Martens, Recueil de principaux traités (2d ed.), V.

70 Cf. the report of the Danish councillor, Ryberg, for Oct. 30, 1770, in Nathanson, Udförligere Oplysninger om Handel- og Finants-Vaesenet (1802).

71 Amneus, La vitte de Kristiania (1841), p. 70; Bugge et al., Den Norske Sjöfarts Historie (1923), p. 528 ff.; Odhner, Sveriges Politiska Historic/, (1885), II, pp. 121-122.

72 Friis et al., Det Danske Folks Historie (1903-1919), VI, p. 9.

73 Report of Ryberg for Oct. 3, 1779, loc. tit.

74 Nathanson in his History of Danish Commerce portrays the general nature of the depression and continues: “We now leave this period. It clearly did not forbode better times… . Then the clouds rolled suddenly away, and Denmark's commercial sky became clear… . In the brilliant commercial period of 1775 to 1784 the country and its people gathered their activities to an admirable degree. The nation was thereby enabled to obtain for the future a not inconsiderable rank among the great seafaring powers.“

75 Cf. the instructions to the French representatives: Havrincourt at Stockholm, 1759, La Houze and De Verac at Copenhagen, 1769 and 1775 respectively, and Durand and De Juigné at St. Petersburg, 1772 and 1775 respectively, in Recueil des instructions (from 1648 to 1789), in Vols. 2 (Sweden), 9 (Russia), and 13 (Denmark).

76 Report of Ryberg, Oct. 30, 1770, loc. cit.

77 Letters of Bernstorff to Reventlou of Mar. 12 and July 13,1776, in Bernstorjfske Papirer (Priis, ed., 1904).

78 Catherine to Grimm, Feb. 18,1778, in Sbornik, Lettres de Catherine II à Grimm (1878).

79 Frederick to Thulemeier, Oct. 14,1776, in Politische Correspondenz Friedrichs des Grossen (1879); see also letters 24,698, 25,086, 25,093 and others.

80 Bernstorff to Reventlou, July 30, 1776, loc. eit.

81 Bernstorff's Memorial to the King, March 17, 1780. See Holm, Danmarh-Norges Historic (1906), V, part 1, Chap. 15.

82 Bernstorff's Memorial to the King, March 17, 1780. See Holm, Denmark-Norges Historie (1906), V, part 1, Chap. 15.

83 Ehrensvärd, Dagboksan'ekningar föra ved Gustaf III:* Hof (1878), II, p. 115.

84 Guldberg's proposals for Denmark's foreign policy, Dec. 3, 1780, in Holm, Dan.-Nor. Hist, V, part 1, Chap. 16.

85 Ibid.

86 Pol. Corr., letters 25,050, 25,069.

87 In his proposals for the foreign policy of Denmark (see n. 83 supra) Guldberg commented: “It will ever remain a maxim that Denmark must desire to see the preservation of England as a great Power and that we can never wish for her downfall. The Bourbon Houses cannot establish their preponderance without disturbing the balance of power. No man can wish to see Louis XIV's flourishing period restored.“

88 Chance, British Diplomatic Instructions, III (Denmark), and V (Sweden), passim.

89 Ibid., V, for the letters of Suffolk to Goodricke, representative at Stockholm, of May 22, 29, June 16, 24, Aug. 4,18,21, Sept. 1,8, Nov. 17,1772, and those to De Visme at that place, of Nov. 11, 1774. Cf. Bhrensvärd, op. cit., I, p. 149.

90 Instructions to De Juigné of May and September, 1775, in Recueil des instructions, Vol. 9 (Russia). Cf. Catherine's letter to Grimm of Aug. 16, 1775, loc. cit.

91 Jauffret, Catherine II, son règne (1860), I, p. 203 ff.

92 Schinkel, Minnen ur Sveriges Nyare Historia (1885), I, p. 374.

93 Ibid. Cf. Ehrensvärd, op. cit, II, p. 31.

94 In Heidenstam's La fin d'une Dynastie, Erdman's Gustaf III, Del förste Bladene i hans Historie, Schuck's Gustaf III, en Karakterstudie, and Wahlstrom's Gustavianske Studier are found a portrayal of the King's character and purposes.

95 Cf. Stavenow, Den Gustavianske Tiden (1925), p. 9; Geffroy, Gustav III et la cour de France (1867), I, p. 186; Instructions to D'Usson, September, 1774, in Becueil des instructions, Vol. II (Sweden).

96 Catherine to Grimm, July 14, 1774, loc. (At. Cf. Bain, Gustavus III (1894), I, p. 205.

97 Wahlstrom, op. cit., p. 122 ff.; Schuck, op. cit., p. 120; Heidenstam, op. cit., p. 98.

98 For Dano-Swedish relations see Holm, Dan.-Nor. Hist., V, part 1, Chaps. 3, 4, 8, 13.

99 Cf. Schinkel, op. cit., II, p. 198 ff.; Ehrensvard, op. tit., II, p. 115 ff.; Heidenstam, op. tit., p. 140.

100 The influence of the domestic situation upon the foreign policy did not escape the notice of contemporaries. Von Schinkel observes ﹛op. cit., p. 270): “In domestic matters events occurred in the course of 1779 which instilled in the King apprehension of the future and impressed upon him the need … of engaging the national interest in foreign problems.” For the anticipated effect of the armed neutrality see the letter of Jan. 1, 1781, by the Duchess of Sudermania to the Countess Piper, quoted in Heidenstam, op. tit., p. 140.

101 Krabben Eyland. Holm comments (Dan.-Nor. Hist., V, p. 349): “The thought of achieving this object held Guldberg at this time in a remarkable passion.“

102 Odhner, op. cit., I, p. 535.

103 Lebeau, Nouveau code des prises (1799-1801),. II, p. 299.

104 Ibid., p. 339.

105 Holm, “Forhandlingeme om en Vaebnet Neutralitet,” he. cit.

106 Cf. her letters to Grimm, Feb. 2, Mar. 4, 1778, and July 24, 1780, loc. cit.

107 Holm, op. cit.

108 Ibid.

109 109 See The Armed Neutralities of 1780 and 1800. A collection of official documents, preceded by the views of representative publicists. Edited by James Brown Scott, Director, Division of International Law, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. New York: Oxford University Press, 1918.