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Comparing Communist Nations: Prospects for an Empirical Approach

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 August 2014

Paul Shoup
Paul Shoup*
Affiliation:
University of Virginia
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The past decade has witnessed a rapid, but uneven, growth in comparative studies. While certain types of political systems have received the lion's share of attention, others have remained backwaters of comparative research, experiencing little or no development in the application of comparative techniques. The comparative study of communist states, until recently, fell into the latter category—relatively neglected and certainly not enjoying the reputation and prestige of work with newly emerging nations or Western political systems.

Now this state of affairs is undergoing a change, or at least the promise of one. In the past several years, the possibility of developing comparative techniques in the study of communist political systems has become the object of growing interest and has provoked not a little discussion and debate.1 The opportunities and the problems that face this field—especially in developing empirically oriented comparative analysis—are the subject of the present article.

Type
Bibliographical Essay
Information
American Political Science Review , Volume 62 , Issue 1 , March 1968 , pp. 185 - 204
Copyright
Copyright © American Political Science Association 1968

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References

1 Skilling, H. Gordon, “Soviet and Communist Politics: A Comparative Approach,” Journal of Politics, 22 (May, 1960), 300–313 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tucker, Robert C., “On the Comparative Study of Communism,” World Politics, 19 (Jan., 1967), 242–257 Google Scholar; symposium on comparative politics and communist systems in Slavic Review, 26 (March, 1967), 1–28. The problems of comparing China and Soviet Russia were the subject of a meeting sponsored by the American Council of Learned Societies in the spring of 1966. Professor Lucian Pye has outlined the problems of comparative research with communist nations in his address, “Comparative Politics and Communist Studies,” delivered to the 62nd Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, 1966.

2 Watson, Hugh Seton, The East European Revolution (1951)Google Scholar; Gluckstein, Ygael, Stalin's Satellites in Europe (1952)Google Scholar; Rubinstein, Alvin Z. (ed.), Communist Political Systems (1966).Google Scholar

3 Barnett, A. Doak (ed.), Communist Strategies in Asia: A Comparative Analysis of Governments and Parties (1963)Google Scholar; Scalapino, Robert A., The Communist Revolution in Asia (1965).Google Scholar

4 LaPalombara, Joseph (ed.), Bureaucracy and Political Development (1963)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lasswell, Harold, World Revolutionary Elites: Studies in Coercive Ideological Movements (1963)Google Scholar; Ehrmann, Henry W., Interest Croups on Four Continents (1958)Google Scholar; Pye, Lucian W. and Verba, Sidney, Political Culture and Political Development (1965)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Neumann, Sigmund, Modern Political Parties (1956).Google Scholar

5 Brzezinski, Zbigniew K., The Soviet Bloc: Unity and Conflict (1961)Google Scholar; Lowenthal, Richard, World Communism (1966)Google Scholar; Laqueur, Walter and Labedz, Leopold (eds.), Communism and Revolution: the Strategic uses of Political Violence (1964)Google Scholar; Skilling, H. Gordon, Communism National and International (1964).CrossRefGoogle Scholar Although primarily concerned with international politics, note should also be made of the series of monographs issued under the auspices of the Hoover Institute on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University, which includes studies on the Soviet Union and the world communist system, the Mongolian People's Republic, the Korean People's Republic, and the Chinese People's Republic.

6 A project on the comparative study of the legal systems of the USSR, China, Poland and Yugoslavia has led to the publication of several monographs: Cohen, Jerome A., “The Criminal Process in the People's Republic of China,” Harvard Law Review, 79 (1966), 469–474 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hazard, John N., “The Soviet Legal Pattern's Spread Abroad,” University of Illinois Law Forum (Spring, 1964), 277–297 Google Scholar; Rudzinski, Aleksander W., “The New Communist Civil Codes of Czechoslovakia and Poland,” Indiana Law Journal, 41 (Fall, 1965), 33–68.Google Scholar Among many comparative legal studies dealing with communist systems, mention should also be made of Gosovski, Vladimir and Grzybowski, Kazimierz (eds.), Government, Law and Courts in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (1959)Google Scholar; Lapenna, Ivo, State and Law: Soviet and Yugoslav Theory (1964)Google Scholar; Szaszy, Istvan, Private International Law in the European People's Democracies (Budapest, 1964).Google Scholar A pioneering work in this field is Sharp, Samuel, New Constitutions in the Soviet Sphere (1950).Google Scholar

7 London, Kurt (ed.), Unity and Contradiction (1962)Google Scholar; Laqueur, Walter and Labedz, Leopold (eds.), The Future of Communist Society (1962)Google Scholar; Shurmann, Franz, “Comparative Politics of Russia and China,” paper delivered to the 61st Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, 1965.Google Scholar

8 Exceptions have included the work of Burks, R. V., The Dynamics of Communism in Eastern Europe (1961)CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Skilling, Gordon, whose recent volume, The Governments of Communist East Europe (1966)Google Scholar, is a truly comparative text. A pioneering work in comparisons of the United States and the Soviet Union is Brzezinski, Zbigniew and Huntington, Samuel, Political Power USA/USSR (1964).Google Scholar

9 Pierce, Roy, “Liberty and Policy as Variables,” this Review, 57 (Sept., 1963), 659.Google Scholar

10 Reference to elite studies will be made in more detail in section III of this article.

11 Systems studies of communist states are discussed below.

12 The literature on typologies relevant to communist states includes Friedrich, Carl J. and Brzezinski, Zbigniew K., Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy (1956)Google Scholar; Almond, Gabriel A., “Comparative Political Systems,” Journal of Politics, 18 (Aug., 1956), 391–409 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Almond, Gabriel A. and Coleman, James S. (eds.), The Politics of Developing Areas (1960)Google Scholar; Almond, Gabriel A. and Powell, G. Bingham Jr., Comparative Politics: a Developmental Approach (1966)Google Scholar; Dahl, Robert A., Modern Political Analysis (1963)Google Scholar; Lowenstein, Karl, Political Power and the Governmental Process (1957)Google Scholar; Moore, Barrington Jr., “Notes on the Acquiring of Political Power,” World Politics, 8 (Oct., 1955), 1–20 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tucker, Robert C., “Toward a Comparative Politics of Movement Regimes,” this Review, 55 (June, 1961), 281–293 Google Scholar; Apter, David, The Politics of Modernization, (1965), pp. 22–25.Google Scholar

13 Political Power USA/USSR. Edward Shils has called the Soviet Union a “tyrannically deformed manifestation of potentialities which are inherent in the process of modernization.” Frederick C. Barghoorn quoting Shils in Lucián Pye and Sidney Verba, loc. cit.

14 The problem is discussed by Meyer, Alfred G., “The Comparative Study of Communist Political Systems,” Slavic Review, 20 (March, 1967), 5–6.Google Scholar

15 Banks, Arthur S. and Textor, Robert B., A Cross-Polity Survey (1963).Google Scholar

16 For examples of this type of work, see Parsons, Taloott and Shils, Edward A., Toward a General Theory of Action (1951), p. 185 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Moore, Barrington, Terror and Progress (1954), p. 185 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Spiro, Herbert, World Politics: The Global System (1966), Ch. 3Google Scholar; Gabriel Almond and James S. Coleman, op. cit., pp. 22–23.

17 Comparative Politics: a Reader (1963), pp. 433–439.

18 Robert C. Tucker, “Toward a Comparative Politics of Movement Regimes,” op. cit.

19 Suggested in the works of Wolfe, Bertram, Six Keys to the Soviet System (1956)Google Scholar; Dallin, David, The Changing World of Soviet Russia (1956)Google Scholar; Trotsky, Leon, The Revolution Betrayed (1937)Google Scholar; and Djilas, Milovan, The New Class (1957).Google Scholar For a restatement of some of the elements of this approach, see Kassof, Allan, “The Administered Society: Totalitarianism Without Terror,” World Politics, 16 (July, 1964), 558–575 CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Alfred Meyer, op. cit.

20 Gabriel Almond and James S. Coleman, op. cit., Easton, David, A Systems Analysis of Political Life (1965)Google Scholar and A Framework for Political Analysis (1965); Barghoorn, Frederick C., Politics in the USSR (1966).Google Scholar

21 One may take as an example the suggestion by Gabriel Almond that input activities embracing “interest articulation” are universal functional requisites of political systems, when in communist states they are normally largely dysfunctional in effect. David Easton has encountered similar problems in his model which stresses the entrance of “demands” in to the political system, with the implication that without such inputs there could be no political system. In Easton's analysis the autonomy of decision-making in totalitarian states is taken into account by speaking of “within puts,” but the difference between them and normal “inputs” in to the system is never fully clarified. Other elements of Easton's approach put more stress on elite analysis, and as a consequence, have greater applicability to totalitarian states. For further criticisms of the structural-functional approach, see Dowse, Robert E., “A Functionalist's Logic,” World Politics, 18 (July, 1966), 607–622.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

22 Kluckhohn, Clyde, Inkeles, Alex and Bauer, Raymond A., “Strategic Psychological and Sociological Strengths and Vulnerabilities of the Soviet Social System,” Russian Research Center, Harvard University (Oct., 1954)Google Scholar; Moore, Barrington Jr., “The Strengths and Weaknesses of the Soviet System,” Air University, Human Resources Research Institute, Maxwell Air Force Base (Dec., 1952)Google Scholar; Sanders, Irwin, “Research for Evaluation of Social Systems Analysis,” Air Force Personnel and Training Research Center, Randolph Air Force Base, Texas (Sept. 15, 1957)Google Scholar; Bauer, Raymond et al., How the Soviet System Works (1956)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lybrand, William A., “Outline of an Analytic Approach to Predicting Societal System Recovery From Air Attack,” AFOSR Technical Note 60–1416, ASTIA AD No. 255770 (March, 1961).Google Scholar

23 The possibilities of developing comparative models based on a dynamic analysis of performance of political systems is dealt with briefly by Halpern, A. M., “Contemporary China as a Problem for Political Science,” World Politics, 15 (April, 1963), 361–375 CrossRefGoogle Scholar and is stressed by Gabriel Almond and G. Bingham Powell, Jr., op. cit., Ch. 8.

24 See Zbigniew Brzezinski and Samuel Huntington, op. cit., p. 124, where the Soviet political system is described using cybernetic terminology. Also relevant are Bertalanffy, Ludwig von, “General Systems Theory,” General Systems Yearbook (1956), Vol. I, pp. 1–100.Google Scholar

25 See his remarks in Merritt, Richard L. and Rokkan, Stein, Comparing Nations: the Use of Quantitative Data in Cross National Research (1966), p. 41.Google Scholar

26 Lal, Amrit, “China's Perennial Census Problem,” Eastern World, 18 (May, 1964), 10–12.Google Scholar For a useful summary of statistical information available on China, still accurate in most particulars, see Kraider, Lawrence and Aird, John, “Sources of Demographic Data on Mainland China,” American Sociological Review, 24 (Oct., 1959), p. 623.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

27 Emerson, John Philip, Non-Agricultural Employment in Mainland China, 1949–1958 (1965).Google Scholar

28 At the time of writing, still in the process of translation. See also Central Intelligence Agency, Average Annual Money Earnings of Workers and Staff in Communist China, 1949–1950 (Oct., 1960).Google Scholar The most recent source of data on mainland China is U.S. Congress, Joint Economic Committee, An Economic Profile of Mainland China, (1967), Vol. II.Google Scholar

29 For data on Cuba, see The Cuban Economic Research Project, A Study on Cuba (1965).Google Scholar Sources for North Vietnamese statistical materials are cited in lê chaû, Le Viet Nam Socialiste: Une Économie de Transition (1966).

30 See Murphy, G. G. S., Soviet Mongolia (1966).Google Scholar

31 Some representative materials, ranging from statistical summaries to analyses in depth in which aggregative data have been employed in Yugoslavia include: Savezni zavod za statistiku, “Narodni odbori srezovi i opština: sastav odbora i izborni rezultati” [Peoples Councils of the Districts and localities: composition of committees and elections results], No. 134 (1959); Zavod SR Slovenije za statistike, “Prikazi in študije,” No. 6 (1964), which deals with the membership of the workers councils in Yugoslavia; Savezni zavod za statistiku, “Rezultati popisa službenika i-x-1956 [Results of the Census of Functionaries i-x-1956] (1957); Čalié, Dušan, Industrializacija Jugoslavie [The Industrialization of Yugoslavia] (1963)Google Scholar; Markovié, Petar J., Strukturne promene na selu kao rezultat ekonomskog razvitka period 1900–1960 [Structural Changes in the Village as a Result of the Economic Development of the Period 1900–1960] (1963).Google Scholar A guide to decision making by the federal government is provided by a description of the decisions made by the federal government in Skupština, Savezna Narodna, Izvštaj Savezno Izvršnog Veča [Report of the Federal Executive Committee], annual report. Incomes are reported by branch of industry and percentage of employees receiving certain levels of income in the Statistical Annual (Statistički godišnjak)Google Scholar: more methodical and revealing data on income differentials of various segments of society has been gathered by the Slovenian statistical bureau and published in its bulletin, Statistčno Gradivo. Studies employing sample survey data and analyses of elections will be cited below.

32 A number of the more important Polish works using aggregative data will be cited in the discussion to follow. Of general interest are Karpiński, Andrzej et al., Problemy rozwoju gospodarczego Polski Ludowej 1944–1964 [Problems of the Economic Development of People's Poland, 1944–1964] (1965)Google Scholar; Sarapaty, Adam (ed.), Przemiany społeczne w Polsce Ludowej [Social Change in People's Poland] (1965)Google Scholar; Turski, Ryszard, Dynamika przemian spolecznych w Polsce [The Dynamics of Social Change in Poland] (1961)Google Scholar; Rosset, Edward, Oblicze demograficzne Polski Ludowej [The Demographic Pace of People's Poland] (1965).Google Scholar Studies issued by the Hungarian Statistical Office, Központi Statisztikai O Hivatal, have dealt with a wide variety of social and demographic problems; a number are cited below.

33 Basic data on economic and social activities in the USSR appears in the statistical annual Narodnoe khoz͡iaistvo SSSR [The National Economy of the USSR] which resumed publication in 1957 after a lapse of almost two decades. Aggregative data on education, occupational structure, national composition of the population of the USSR and other subjects may be found in the statistical journal Vestnik Stalistiki and in the annual SSSR v tsifrakh (also published for a number of the Union Republics). For a recent study on the Soviet Union giving a compilation of demographic data from Soviet sources, U.S. Congress, Joint Economic Committee, New Directions in the Soviet Economy, Part III, The Human Resources (1966).Google Scholar All of the remaining East European governments have published statistical yearbooks; all have held one or more censuses in the post-war period.

34 An example of the Soviet approach toward sharing comparative data was provided by the 1958 Prague conference of social scientists sponsored by UNESCO; the American participant remarked that the Soviet social scientists “never quite admit that studies of social and economic conditions, to be truly comparable, must include free and open use of data from the Eastern (Communist) countries, as well as from others. In some deep sense, they regard their case as different”: Hughes, Everett C., Comparative Studies in Society and History, 1 (March, 1959), 290.Google Scholar For Soviet publications giving comparative statistics on the bloc, Ekonomika Sotsialisticheskikh stran v tsifrakh [The Economies of Socialist Countries in Figures] (1965); Kotkovskiῐ et al., Sopostavlenie urovneῐ ekonomicheskogo razviti͡ia sotsialisticheskikh stran [Determining the Level of Economic Development of Socialist Countries] (1965). For comparison of the Soviet and American economies with a clear propagandistic intent, “Nauchna͡ia konferentsi͡ia po voprosam metodologii spostavleni͡ia osnovynkh ekonomicheskikh pokazateleἵ SSSR i S Sh A [Scientific Conference on the Question of Methodology in Establishing the Basic Economic Indicators of the USSR and the USA], Vestnik Statistika, No. 1 (1963), 29–73.

35 Publications of Comecon include Metodologicheskie polozheni͡ia pokazateleῐ statistiki truda stran chlenov SEV [Methodological Positions Concerning Statistical Indicators of Labor in Member Countries of COMECON], (1963); Metodologicheskie polozheni͡ia pokazatelei statistiki naseleni͡ia stran chlenov SEV [Methododological Positions Concerning the Population of the Countries of COMECON]. In another area, see Mód, M. (ed.), The Standard of Living: Some Problems of Analysis and International Comparison (Budapest, 1962).Google Scholar

36 See the volumes issued under the Research Project on National Income in East Central Europe, Columbia University, Czechoslovak National Income and Product in 1947–48 and 1955–56 (1962)Google Scholar; Hungarian National Income and Product in 1955 (1963); Polish National Income and Product, 1954, 1955, and 1956 (1965). Much of this information is summarized by Ernst, Maurice, “Postwar Economic Growth in Eastern Europe (A Comparison with Western Europe),” New Directions in the Soviet Economy, op. cit., Part IV, pp. 875–916.Google Scholar

37 The Civic Culture (1963).

38 The earliest and most successful of these studies was the Harvard project on the Soviet Union. Its results have been given in Inkeles, Alex and Bauer, Raymond A., The Soviet Citizen: Daily Life in a Totalitarian Society (1959).CrossRefGoogle Scholar Studies on Eastern Europe have included the interviewing of refugees by Kracauer, Siegfried, Satellite Mentality: Political Attitudes and Propaganda Susceptibilities of Non-communists in Hungary, Poland and Czechoslovakia (1956)Google Scholar; the survey of between 500 and 600 refugees from the Hungarian revolution by the Special Operations Research Office in early 1957, the results of which can be found in Special Operations Research Office, Socio-Psychological Information on Hungarian Refugees, 3 vols, (no date)Google Scholar; the work on Hungarian Freedom Fighters carried out under the auspices of Columbia University, the results of which have not been published but are on file in the Columbia University Library. Information from this project was utilized by Zinner, Paul, Revolution in Hungary (1962).Google Scholar Under the auspices of the Free Europe Press, Henry Gleitman and Joseph J. Greenbaum carried out interviews of Hungarian refugees from the 1956 revolution. The results of this study were presented in several articles by the two organizers of the project: “Hungarian Socio-Political Attitudes and Revolutionary Action,” Public Opinion Quarterly, 24 (Spring, 1960), 64–76; “Attitudes and Personality Patterns of Hungarian Refugees,” Public Opinion Quarterly, 25 (Fall, 1961), 35–65. A fourth study of Hungarian refugees was carried out by International Research Associates, Personal Interviews with 1,000 Hungarian Refugees in Austria (1957).Google Scholar

39 Interviewing of persons from the Soviet Union has been going on under the auspices of the Center for International Studies, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in connection with the study of communications in communist countries.

For more on the study of communications, see Part III below.

40 In the past six years, Radio Free Europe has interviewed over 20,000 East European citizens visiting in the West, preparing reports on such issues as “The Psycho-Political Climate in Bulgaria” (Dec., 1960); “The Attitude of Young Czechoslovaks Regarding War and Peace” (Feb., 1966); and “Flight Motivation of Refugees from Four Soviet Bloc Countries (Sept., 1963). A summary of the results of these studies can be found in “What Do East Europeans Think,” East Europe, 15 (March, 1960), 26–28.

41 Armstrong, John, “Sources of Administrative Behavior: Some Soviet and Western European Comparisons,” this Review, 59 (Sept., 1965), 643–655.Google Scholar

42 In the Chinese case, the problems facing sample survey work with displaced persons were evaluated as “appalling” at a conference held on the subject in 1962 under the sponsorship of the American Council of Learned Societies. Prior to that time two major studies had been organized. One was under the auspices of the UN and dealt with the problems of refugees, but contained data of interest for the political scientist: Dr.Hambro, Edvard, The Problems of Chinese Refugees in Hong Kong (1955).Google Scholar The other early study was carried out under the direction of the Special Operations Research Office and involved the interviewing of approximately 2,000 Main land Chinese on various aspects of communications in communist China, especially word of mouth communications. Unclassified results of this study are available through the organizer of the research, Barton Whaley: “Propin China: A Study of Word of Mouth Communications in Communist China.” in 1964–65, Paul Hiniker, working under the auspices of the Center for International Studies, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, interviewed over 400 Chinese refugees on the effects of mass communications: “The Effect of Mass Communication in Communist China,” (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, MIT June, 1966).

43 For a recent example of this type of work, see Barnett, A. Doak, Cadres, Bureaucracy and Political Power in Communist China (1967).Google Scholar

44 Polish interest in public opinion sampling dates from 1956; since that time the most active group in the field has been the Public Opinion Research Center (OBOP). The OBOP has worked with a national quota sample of some 3,000 persons and until recently some 25 studies a year were being carried out under its auspices. Despite a reaction against public opinion polling by the Communist leadership in Poland, work of this kind continues. Descriptions of Polish sample survey work include Markiewicz, Wladyslaw, “Sociological Research in People's Poland,” in Ehrlich, Stanislaw (ed.), Social and Political Transformations in Poland (1964), pp. 221–254 Google Scholar; Sicinski, Andrzej, “Public Opinion Surveys in Poland,” International Social Science Journal, 15 (1963), 91–109 Google Scholar; Wilder, Emilia, “Sociology in Eastern Europe: Poland,” Problems of Communism, 14 (Jan.–Feb., 1965), 62–66.Google Scholar Among the many Polish studies, the following may be noted as genuine contributions to our knowledge of the political attitudes of groups in Poland: Nowak, Stefan, “Środowiskowe determinanty ideologii społeczney studentow Warszawy [Environmental Determinants of Social Ideology of Warsaw Students],” Studia Socjologiczne (1962), 143–180 Google Scholar; Koszek, Józef, “Postawy spoteczno-polityczne chtopów,” [Social-Political Attitudes of the Peasants], Studia Socjologiczno Polityczne (1964), 207–249 Google Scholar; Nowak, Stefan, “Egalitarian Attitudes of Warsaw Students,” American Sociological Review, 25 (April, 1960), 219–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Yugoslav sample survey work has been carried out chiefly through the Institute for Social Sciences, Belgrade, and the Institute for Sociology and Philosophy at the University of Ljubljana. Studies have included testing of a national sample for opinions on the Yugoslav constitution, the party congress, and the national question; sampling of local functionaries to gain information on decision-making in local government and in the workers council; studies of mass communications; and polling of the attitudes of the younger generation. Important sources for this material include: Skrzypek, Stanislaw, “The Political, Cultural and Social Views of Yugoslav Youth,” Public Opinion Quarterly, 29 (Spring, 1965), 87–106 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; publications of the Institute for Social Sciences, including the series Jugoslovensko javno mnenje [Yugoslav Public Opinion]; Javno mnenje o prednacrtu novog Ustava [Public Opinion on the Draft of the New Constitution] (1964); Hadžistević, Vojin et al., Tendencije i praksa neposrednog upravljanja radnika u ekonomskim jedinicama [Tendencies and Practice in the Direct Administration of the Workers in Economic Units] (1963)Google Scholar; Milosavljevski, Slavko, Saveti narodnih odhora: organizacija i funkcionisanje [Councils of the People's Committees: Organization and Functioning] (1963).Google Scholar Slovenian studies can be found in Institut za Sociologijo in Filizofijo pri univerzi v Ljubljana Informativni Bilten, passim. Studies on social mobility, modernization and communications are cited below.

45 The Achieving Society (1961).

46 The progress of the study is described in International Social Science Council mimeographed report, “International Studies of Values in Politics: Report of the Third International Roundtable, Warsaw, Poland, July 16–26, 1966” (1966).

47 Kloskowska, Antonina, “National Concepts and Attitudes of Children in a Middle Sized City in Polish Western Territories,” The Polish Sociological Journal, No. 1–2 (June–Dec., 1961), 43–56 Google Scholar (in which the author applied the questionaires of Klineburg, O. and Lambert, W. E., given in International Social Science Journal, 11 (1959), 221–238 Google Scholar, on national attitudes to Polish children); Kadzielski, Jozef, “ Miedzypokoleniowa ruchliwosc społeczna mieszkancow Lodzi [Inter-Generational Mobility of Lodz Inhabitants],” Przeglad Socjologiczny, 17 (1963), 114–218 Google Scholar, in which aggregate data on mobility in Lodz is compared with similar data for the cities of Indianapolis and Aarhus.

48 The Bulgarians have now set up a “Methodical Research Office” under the Bulgarian State Radio to carry out opinion polls of radio listeners.

Rumania has been calling for greater objectivity in the social sciences, but has been slow to set up any polling organizations. The Hungarians are well-advanced in market research and have carried out time-budget studies, polls on the use of leisure time and of mass media. The Czechs now have established a sociological institute under the Academy of Sciences which is working in this field, and in 1966 an institute for the study of public opinion was formed in Prague. This is in addition to the institute for sociological research in Bratislava, which was the first to carry out sample-survey studies. For some reports on this activity, White, Ralph K., “Social Science Research in the Soviet Bloc,” Public Opinion Quarterly, 28 (Summer, 1964), 20–26 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Taborsky, Edward, “Sociology in Eastern Europe: Czechoslovakia,” Problems of Communism, 14 (Jan–Feb., 1965), 62–66 Google Scholar; Peter C. Ludz, “Sociology in Eastern Europe: East Germany,” ibid., pp. 66–67.

49 Grushin, Boris A., Chikin, V., Ispoved' pokoleni͡ia [Confessions of a Generation] (1962).Google Scholar

50 A useful review of these studies can be found in Elizabeth Ann Weinberg, “Soviet Sociology: 1960–1963,” Center for International Studies, MIT, Oct. 11, 1964. For Soviet accounts, Akademi͡ia Nauk SSSR, Institut Filosofii, Kolichestvennie metodi v sotsiologii [Quantitative Methods in Sociology] (1966).Google Scholar For opposition to the use of quantitative methods in studying Soviet society, see Baῐdel'dinov, L. A., Statistika v sotsiologicheskom issledovanii [Statistics in Sociological Research] (1965).Google Scholar

51 Lethbridge, H., “Classes in Class,” The Far Eastern Economic Review, Aug. 8, 1963, pp. 333–334 Google Scholar; Freedman, Maurice, “Sociology in China: A Brief Survey,” British Journal of Sociology, 13 (June, 1962), 173.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

52 Carl Beck, on the basis of his experience with East European elites, has remarked that “Communist statistics on the social composition of the party are unreliable, not comparable, and unavailable for certain periods of time”: “Bureaucracy and Political Development in Eastern Europe,” in LaPalombara, op. cit., p. 292.

53 For example, Czechoslovakia did not release data on the party's composition until recently. Although most of this information must be gained from scattered reports of party congresses and plenums, compilations of data are sometimes made available by the communist parties. An excellent example of this type of publication is the valuable volume of the Uzbekistan, party, Kommunisticheska͡ia Partiia Uzbekistan v tsifrakh: Sbornık statisticheskikh materialov 1924–1964 gody [The Communist Party of Uzbekistan in Figures: Collection of statistical Materials 1924–1964] (Tashkent, 1964).Google Scholar The Soviet party census of 1927 is discussed below.

54 Lewis, John W., “The Study of Chinese Political Culture,” World Politics, 18 (1966), 503–524.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

55 See the discussion of elites that follows.

56 In locating empirical studies originating in communist countries, the following bibliographies are useful: International Bibliography of the Social Sciences, series on political science and sociology; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census, Bibliography of Social Science Periodicals and Monograph Series: Foreign Social Science Bibliographies Series (Poland, Czechoslovakia, North Korea, China, Yugoslavia, and the USSR)Google Scholar; Wiatr, Jerzy J., “Political Sociology in Eastern Europe: A Trend Report and a Bibliography,” Current Sociology, 13 (1965).CrossRefGoogle Scholar For recent Soviet works in the Social Sciences: Murray Feshbach, “A Selected Bibliography of Recent Soviet Monographs,” Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United States, op. cit., Part IV, pp. 977–1026. A guide to early empirical work in Yugoslavia is found in the mimeographed report of the Institute for Social Sciences, Belgrade, Bibliografska anatocija dela empirijskog karaktera iz oblasti drustvenih nauka [Annotated Bibliography of Materials of an Empirical Character in the Social Sciences] (1964). For East Germany, Ludz, Peter C. (ed.), “Studien und Materialen zur Soziologie der DDR,” Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozial-psychologie (1964), pp. 327–418.Google Scholar Emilia Wilder, op. cit., refers to a bibliographic survey of Polish materials listing 62 books and 871 dissertations in the field of sociology for the period 1958–1961, in Trybuna Ludu, April, 29, 1964. For China, see Berton, Peter and Wu, Eugene, Contemporary China: A Research Guide (1967)Google Scholar; Hungarian materials listed in Hivatal, Központi Statisztikai, Könyvtara, , Magyar Közgazdasági és Statisztikai Irodalom: Bibliografia … [Hungarian Bibliography of Economics and Statistics] (1963).Google Scholar For Bulgarian works, Dzherova, L. and Toteva, H., Bibliograf͡ia NA Bulgarskata statisticheska͡ia literatura, 1878–1960 [Bibliography of Bulgarian Statistical Literature, 1878–1960] (1961)Google Scholar; Czech studies are reported in Kozelka, Karel and Zatloukal, Čeňek, “Sociologie: Přehled české a slovenské výběr ze zahraniční literatury [Sociology: A Survey of Czech and Slovak and a Selection of Foreign Literature],” Prehled Literatury, No. 3 (1965).Google Scholar A partial guide to the NEP period in Russia, is provided by Katalog knig po obshchestvennim Voprosam [Catalogue of Books on Social Questions] (Moscow, 1926)Google Scholar and Sistematicheskiἵ ukazatel' sotsial'no-ekonomicheskoῐ literaturi izdannoῐ Gosizdalom za vrem͡ia s 1919 po 1924 gg. [Systematic Index to Social-Economic Literature Published by Gosizdat from 1919 to 1924] (Moscow, 1924).

57 Outstanding for its concern with empirical analysis of social stratification in Poland has been the series “Z badan klasy robotniczej i inteligencji” [Research on the Working Class and Intelligentsia] edited by Jan Szczepanski, which now runs to 20 volumes. A major contribution to the theoretical literature has been made by Ossowski, Stalinslaw, Class Structure in the Social Consciousness (1963)Google Scholar. Other significant Polish works include Gatȩski, B. (ed.), Spofeczno-Ekonomiczna Strukture Wsi (Social Economic Structure of the Peasantry] (1961)Google Scholar; Sarapaty, Adam (ed.), Socjologia Zawodow [Sociology of Occupations] (1965)Google Scholar;, Sarapaty, Adam (ed.), Studia nad uwarstwieniem i ruchliwościa spoteczna w Polsce [A Study of Stratification and Social Mobility in Poland] (1965)Google Scholar; Rajkiewicz, Antoni, Zatrudnienie w Polsce Ludowej w latach 1960–1970: Dynamika i struktura [Employment in People's Poland in the Years 1950–1970: Dynamics and Structure] (1965).Google Scholar

58 Among many works, the following may be cited as representative and providing a wide variety of data on social stratification in Eastern Europe and the USSR: Lungwitz, Karl, Über die Klassen Struktur in der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik: eine Sozial-ökonomisch-statistische Untersuchung (Berlin, 1962)Google Scholar; Akademi͡ia Nauk SSSR, Institut Istorii, Izmeneni͡ia v chislennosti i sostave sovetskogo rabochego klassa: Sbornik stateῐ [Changes in the Number and Composition of the Soviet Working Class: Collection of Articles] (1961)Google Scholar; Bogarskiῐ, A., “O tak nazyvaemoῐ ‘sotsial'noi mobilnosti’,” [On So-Called Social Mobility] Voprosy Filosofii (1958), pp. 64–73 Google Scholar; Inkeles, Alex, “Social Stratification and Mobility in the Soviet Union, 1940–1950,” American Sociological Review, 15 (1950), 465–473 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Markiewicz-Lagneau, Janina, “Les Problèmes de Mobilité Sociale en U.R.S.S.,” Cahiers du Monde Russe et Soviétique, 7 (April-June, 1966), 161–188 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sčítání lidu, domů a bytů v Československé Socialistické Republice k 1 březnu 1961, Díl II: Sociální, ekonomická a profesionální skladba obyvatelstva [Census of Population, Housing and Flats in the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic of 1 March, 1961, Part II: Social, Economic and Professional Composition of the Population]; Kubat, Daniel, “Social Mobility in Czechoslovakia,” American Sociological Review, 28 (1963), 212 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hivatal, Központi Statisztikai, Társadalmi Rétegzödés Magyarországon (15,000 Háztartás 1963)Google Scholar [The Social Stratification of Hungary (15,000 Households)] (1966); Republica Populară Romină, Direcţia Centrală de Statistică, Recensămîntul Populatiei Din 21 Februárie 1956: Structura Social-Economică A Populatieí…. [Population Census of 21 February 1956: Social-Economic Structure of the Population] (1960)Google Scholar; Peeujlić, Miroslav, Promene u socijalnoj strukturi Jugoslavie [Changes in the Social Structure of Yugoslavia] (1963)Google Scholar; llií, Miloš et al., Socijalna struktura i pokretlivost kadničke klase Jugoslavije [Social Structure and Mobility of the Working Class in Yugoslavia] (1963)Google Scholar; Markov, Marko, Kam vprosa za klasovite izmenenja I NRB [Problems of Class Changes in the BPR (Bulgarian Peoples Republic)] Sofia, 1960 Google Scholar; Machonin, Pavel, “Structure Sociale de la Tchechoslovaquie Contemporaine,” Reserches Internationales a la Lumière du Marxisme (May-June, 1966), pp. 41–58 Google Scholar; Dimitriu, Petru, “Elemente der Einheit und der Differenzierung in der Klassenstruktur der Ostblockstaaten,” Ost Europa, 12 (1962), 403–420 Google Scholar; Lukić, R. and Marković, Ljubomir, Klasni Sastav u socijalističkim zemljama [The Class Structure in Socialist States] (1960).Google Scholar

59 Lewis, John W., “Political Aspects of Mobility in China's Urban Development,” this Review, 60 (Dec. 1966), 899–912.Google Scholar

60 John Philip Emerson, op. cit.; Weitzman, Murray S. and Elias, Andrew, The Magnitude and Distribution of Civilian Employment in the USSR, 1928–1959 (April, 1961)Google Scholar; Schroder, Gertrude, “Industrial Wage Differentials in the USSR,” Soviet Studies, 17 (Jan., 1966), 303–317 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pacuraru, J., “Planned Development and Labour Force Structure in Rumania, 1950–1965,” International Labor Review, (Dec., 1966), 535–549 Google Scholar; Timár, János, Planning the Labour Force in Hungary (1966)Google Scholar; Bosch, Werner, Die Sozialstruktur in West und Mitteldeutschland (Bonn, 1958)Google Scholar; Frejka, T., “Dlouhodobý vývoj odvětvové struktury společenské pracovní síly” [Long-Range Evolution of the Branch Structure of the Society's Working Force] Politická Ekonomie, (Aug., 1966), 661–673 Google Scholar; Minkov, Minko, Nase-lenieto i rabotnata sila v Bulgari͡ia [Population and the Working Force in Bulgaria] (Sofia, 1966).Google Scholar Polish and Yugoslav works have been cited earlier in connection with social stratification and availability of aggregative data.

61 Armstrong, John A., “Party Bifurcation and Elite Interests,” Soviet Studies, 17 (April, 1966), 417–430 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hodnett, Grey, “The Obkom First Secretaries,” Slavic Review, 24 (Dec., 1965), 636–652 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bauman, Zygmunt, “Economic Growth, Social Structure, Elite Formation'. The Case of of Poland,” International Social Science Journal 16 (1964), 203–216 Google Scholar; Azrael, Jeremy R., Managerial Power and Soviet Politics (1966)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Armstrong, John A., The Soviet Bureaucratic Elite: A Case Study of the Ukranian Apparatus (1959)Google Scholar; Kubat, Daniel, “Patterns of Leadership in a Communist State; Czechoslovakia 1946–1958,” Journal of Central European Affairs, 21 (Oct., 1961), 305–318 Google Scholar; Müller, K. Valentin, Die Manager in der Sowjetzone: Eine Empirische Untersuchung zur Soziologie der Wirtschaftlichen und Militärischen Führungsschicht in Mitteldeutschland (1962)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Moskos, Charles C. Jr., “From Monarchy to Communism: The Social Transformation of the Albanian Elite,” in Barrington, Herbert R. et al., Social Change in Developing Areas (1965), pp. 205–221 Google Scholar; Angell, R. C. et al., “Social Values and Foreign Policy Attitudes of Soviet and American Elites,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, 8 (Dec., 1964), 330–491 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tiewes, Frederick C., Provincial Party Personnel in Mainland China 1956–1966 (Columbia University, East Asian Institute, 1967)Google Scholar; Lewis, John W., Leadership in Communist China (1963)Google Scholar; Bauman, Zygmunt, “Struktura władzy społeczności lokalnej: Konceptualizacja badań [Pattern of Power in a Local Community: Conceptualization of Research],” Studia Socjologiczno Polityczne, No. 12 (1962), 7–30 Google Scholar; Jerovšek, J., “Neformalne strukture odlučanje na nivoj opčme [Informal Structure of Decision Making at the Level of the opstina],” Sodobnost (Ljubljana), No. 12, 1964 Google Scholar; Rajović, Radošin, Proces stvaranja opštinskih pravnih propsia [The Process of Creating Opstina Ordinances] (1962).Google Scholar Among on-going research projects whose results were not available for this article, special note should be taken of the study of East European elites using computer techniques at the University of Pittsburgh. Some results are included in Carl Beck, “Bureaucratic Conservatism and Innovation in Eastern Europe,” paper delivered to the 1966 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association.

62 A sizeable literature on communications and propaganda in communist countries now exists. Some studies of relevance for comparative work using empirical data, or relying on sample survey methods, include Fagen, Richard R., “Mass Media Growth: A Comparison of Communist and Other Countries,” Journalism Quarterly, 41 (Autumn, 1964), 563–567 and 572CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Inkeles, Alex, Public Opinion in Soviet Russia (1958)Google Scholar; Bauer, Raymond and Gleicher, David B., “Word of Mouth Communication in the Soviet Union,” (Maxwell Air Force Base, Human Resources Institute, 1953)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Special Operations Research Office, “Propin China: A Study of Word of Mouth Communications in Communist China,” op. cit.; Paul Hiniker, “The Effects of Mass Communication in Communist China,” op. cit. Some of the materials produced by the Center of International Studies, MIT, Research Program on Problems of International Communication and Security include Liu, Alan P. I., “Growth and Modernizing Function of Rural Radio in Communist China,” Journalism Quarterly, 41 (Autumn, 1964), 573–577 Google Scholar; Liu, Alan P. I., “The Use of Traditional Media for Modernization in Communist China,” Center for International Studies, MIT (Oct., 1965)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Durham, F. Gayle, “Radio and Television in the Soviet Union,” Center for International Studies, MIT (June, 1965).CrossRefGoogle Scholar For Polish materials, see Sicinski, Andrzej, “Surveys of Mass Communication of the Public Opinion Research Center,” Polish Sociological Journal, No. 1–2 (June–Dec., 1961), 97–101.Google Scholar The best work on communications in Yugoslavia has been carried out by the Institute for Sociology and Philosophy at the University of Ljubljana; the results can be found in the bulletin of the institute, Institut z sociologijo, Informativni Bilten. See also Institut društvenih nauka, Sredstva masovnog komuniciranja u Jugoslaviji [Media of Mass Communication in Yugoslavia] (1966); and Popkin, Samuel L., “A Model of a Communication System,” The American Behavioral Scientist, 8 (May, 1965), 8–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

63 See Ranney, Austin (ed.), Essays on the Behavioral Study of Politics (1962), 235–251 Google Scholar; Wiatr, J., “Niektóre zagadnienia opinii publicznej w świetle wyborów 1957 i 1958 [Several Problems of Public Opinion in the Light of the Elections of 1957 and 1958],” Studia Socjologiczno Polityczne, No. 4 (1959)Google Scholar; Pelczynski, Z. A. and Butler, D. E. (ed.), Elections Abroad (1959), 119–166 Google Scholar; Bereza, Stanislaw, “Wybory do Dzielnicowej rady narodowej Warzawa-Ochata w roku 1958 [Elections to the Peoples Council of Warsaw-Ochata During 1958], Studia Socjologiczno Polityczne, No. 2 (1959), 161–164.Google Scholar These studies have analyzed class and regional participation in Polish elections according to the number of registered voters that participate in elections, and the percentage voting for the front. In addition, the process of “negative selection” in Polish elections, by which it is possible to cross names off the single slate of candidates and thus change the order in which persons are elected from that given on the official list, has been used to determine the popularity of various types of persons as candidates for office. Perhaps the best summary of the economic and social influences on voting detected by these methods, cast in the form of an explicit comparison with assumptions concerning electoral behavior in the West, can be seen in Wiatr, Jerzy J., “Economic and Social Factors of Electoral Behavior,” The Polish Sociological Journal, No. 3–4 (Jan.–June, 1962), 65–75.Google Scholar In communist countries the presence of two candidates is practically unknown, but when Yugoslavia briefly experimented with such a system in 1953, issues and attitudes began to emerge among the electorate. See Hammond, Thomas F., “Yugoslav Elections: Democracy in Small Doses,” Political Science Quarterly, 70 (March, 1955), 57–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar For the 1965 elections, Institut društvenih nauka, Skupštinski izbori 1965 [Parliamentary Elections 1965] (1966).Google Scholar

64 II. Skilling, Gordon, “Interest Groups and Communist Politics,” World Politics, 18 (April, 1966), 435–451 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Morton, Henry W. (ed.), Soviet Policy Making: Studies of Communism in Transition (1966).Google Scholar Wesełowski, Włodzimierz, “Class Domination and the Power of Interest Groups,” The Polish Sociological Journal, No. 3–4 (Jan.–June, 1962), 53–64 Google Scholar; Djordjevic, Jovan, “Interest Groups and the Political System of Yugoslavia,” in Ehrmann, Henry W., Interest Groups on Four Continents (1958), 197–228 Google Scholar; Lakatos, Michael, “K niektorým problémom štruktury našej politickej sústavy [On Some Problems of the Structure of Our Political System],” Pravni Obzor, 1 (1965), 26–36 Google Scholar, cited by H. Gordon Skilling, op. cit: Kuliev, T. H., Problema interesov v Sotsialisticheskom obshchestve [Problems of Interest in Socialist Society] (1967).Google Scholar

65 For Polish works in this field, see earlier references on aggregative data. Also representative of this type of analysis are Vogelnik, Dolfe, Urbanizacija kao odraz privrednog razvoja FNRJ [Urbanization as an Expression of the Economic Development of Yugoslavia] (1961)Google Scholar; Lengyel, László, “Vélemények és Tények as Életszinvonalról [Opinions and Facts About the Living Standard],” Statisztikai Szemle, No. 2 (Feb., 1966), 139–157 Google Scholar and No. 3 (March, 1966), 227–244; Kubović, Branko, Regionalne aspekt privrednog razvitka Jugoslavije [Regional Aspects of Economic Development in Yugoslavia] (1961)Google Scholar; M. V. Bakhrakh, “Issledovanie urovn͡iaà eko-nomicheskogo razviti͡ia raῐona (na primere Moldavskoῐ SSR) [Investigation of the Level of Economic Development of Regions (Using the Example of the Moldavian SSR)]” in Akademiia Nauk SSSR, Voprosi Metodiki Issledovani͡ia Razmeshcheni͡ia Proizvodstva [Questions of Method in Research on the Location of Production] (1965), 26–46 Google Scholar; Rimashevska͡ia, N. M., Ekonomicheskii analiz dohodov rabochikh i Sluzhashchikh [Economic Analysis of the Incomes of Workers and Functionaries] (1965)Google Scholar; Ehrlich, Stanislaw (ed.), Social and Political Transformations in Poland (1964).Google Scholar Western sources on modernization and the standard of living are cited below.

66 Ossowski, op. cit.: Keller, Suzanne, Beyond the Ruling Class (1963)Google Scholar; Beck, Carl et al., A Survey of Elite Studies (Special Operations Research Office Memo 65–3, March, 1965)Google Scholar; Aron, Raymond, “Social Structure and the Ruling Class,” British Journal of Sociology, 1 (March, 1950), 1–16 and 126–143CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Aron, Raymond, La Lutte de Classes (1964).Google Scholar

67 There are a number of excellent studies in which data for the global analysis of modernization is gathered and analyzed, using information from communist countries as well as non-communist, but the results are not given in a form which can be used for the comparative analysis of communist systems. See Schnore, Leo F., “The Statistical Measurement of Urbanization and Economic Development,” Land Economics, 37 (Aug., 1961), 229–245 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ginsburg, Norton, Atlas of Economic Development (1961).Google Scholar Some interesting insights into the pattern of industrialization in communist nations can be gained from Brian Berry, J. L., “An Inductive Approach to the Regionalization of Economic Development” in Ginsburg, Norton (ed.), Geography and Economic Development, University of Chicago Department of Geography Research Paper No. 62 (1960), 97.Google Scholar Data on relative levels of consumption prior to World War II—and the problems that arise in making such a comparative analysis—are given in Bennett, M. K., “International Disparities in Consumption Levels,” The American Economic Review, 11 (Sept., 1951), 632–649.Google Scholar Important for comparative analysis of the standard of living in the post-war period are Ruban, Maria-Elisabeth Die Entwicklung des Lebensstandards in der Sowjetunion (1965)Google Scholar; Central Intelligence Agency, A Comparison of Consumption in the USSR and the United States (1964)Google Scholar; Holešovský, Václav, “Personal Consumption in Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland, 1950–1960, A Comparison,” Slavic Review, 24 (Dec., 1965) 622–635 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Chapman, Janet G., Real Wages in the Soviet Union since 1928 (1963).CrossRefGoogle Scholar For other quantitative approaches to measuring development, see Wilbur, Charles K., “A Non-monetary Index of Economic Development,” Soviet Studies, 17 (April, 1966), 408–416 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Jack Fischer, op. cit.

68 Aggregative data appeared in this period on a wide variety of subjects important for cross-national and comparative analysis, including social stratification (class differences and occupational breakdowns), data on communications (mail turnover, number of radio stations, and the like), and economic and demographic data. From this period date some of the few statistics ever published on the size of the party in administrative organs, trade unions, and other important institutions in Soviet society. Statistics on the number of arrests and related information on crime were also published in this period, and data can even be found from the early 1920's on the size of the security organs. Valuable data is also available from the early 1920's on the social composition of the party and local government organs at the local level. Two censuses (in addition to a number of industrial censuses and the party census of 1927) were carried out in 1920 and 1926. The main sources for this data are Trudy T sentral' nogo Statisticheskogo Upravleni͡ia [Works of the Central Statistical Administration] in which the results of the censuses are included; Statisticheskií ezhegodnik [Statistical Annual]; Narodnoe khoz͡iaistvo SSSR [National Economy of the USSR], published through 1932; Statisticheskií otdel Tsentral'nogo komiteta Vsesoıῦiznoῐ Kommunisticheskoῐ Partii (Bol'shevikov), Bsesoıῦzna͡ia partiina͡ia perepis' 1927 goda [All-Union Party Census for 1927] 8 vols. (1927); Bsesoıῦzna͡ia Kommunisticheska͡ia Parti͡ia (Bol' shevikiv) Tsentraln'yi komitet BKP (b) Organizatsionno-instruktorskiῐ Otdel, Sostav VKP (b) v tsifrakh [Composition of the All-Union Communist Party in Figures], 11 Vols.

69 For data on the membership of communist parties U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Intelligence and Research, World Strength of Communist Party Organizations. Compilations of prominent officials in communist countries are available in the State Department volumes, Intelligence Research Aid.

70 Cutright, Philip, “National Political Development: Measurement and Analysis,” American Sociological Review, 28 (April, 1963), 253–264 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ivo K. Feierabend, “Correlates of Political Stability,” paper delivered to the 1963 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association; Gregg, Phillip M. and Banks, Arthur S. “Dimensions of Political Systems: Factor Analysis of a Cross Polity Survey,” this Review, 59 (Sept., 1965), 602–614.Google Scholar

71 See the discussion in John W. Lewis, “The Study of Chinese Political Culture,” op. cit.

72 Rokkan, Stein (ed.), Data Archives for the Social Sciences (1965), pp. 122–127.Google Scholar

73 Rokita, Stanislaw, “Analiza czynnikowa w badaniach regionalynch [Factor Analysis in Regional Research],” Przeglad Statystyczny (1966), 245–260.Google Scholar

74 Richard L. Merritt and Stein Rokkan, op. cit., p. 32.

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