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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 11 December 2015
Latin American maritime history is virtually an unexplored subject among English-speaking scholars. Opportunities for research abound since practically every Latin American nation has had an intimate affair with the water; for some it has been sweet and for others salt. One can find a maritime topic which complements his or her interest in almost any Latin American country or any era.
Even land-locked Paraguay has been profoundly influenced by its maritime environment. It has fought two major wars since independence and the outcomes of both were influenced by the exploitation of the extensive river systems. During the War of the Triple Alliance, Paraguay lost control of the rivers, the only efficient means of transportation, early in the contest. As a result, Paraguay's enemies held the initiative and could find a haven under the guns of their fleet if the battle went poorly on land. Conversely, during the early stages of the Chaco War, Paraguay's control of the rivers gave it a significant logistical advantage over its enemy, Bolivia. Paraguay had to bring its supplies up the Paraguay River and its tributaries; on the other hand, Bolivia had to bring its supplies up the west slopes of the Andes and then down the other side.
Dr. Robert Scheina received his doctorate from The Catholic University of America in 1976. In 1987 his Latin America, A Naval History, 1810-1987 was published by U.S. Naval Institute Press. Annually since 1982, Dr. Scheina has written “Latin American Naval Review” for U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings. Dr. Scheina currently holds the Department of Transportation Chair at the Industrial College of the Armed Forces, Washington, D.C., a two year appointment. In July 1991 he returns to his permanent position, senior historian for the United States Coast Guard.
1 During the early days of the war, a Paraguayan soldier typically reached the front in three days; the trip for his Bolivian opponent was frequently longer than two weeks.
2 Heinl, Robert Jr., Dictionary of Military and Naval Quotations (Annapolis: U.S. Naval Institute Press, 1966), p. 289 Google Scholar.
3 Burzio, Humberto, et. al., San Martíny El Mar. (Buenos Aires: Departamento de Estudios Históricos Navales, 1962)Google Scholar.
If one reviews Simón Bolívar’s comings and goings from the South American continent, usually one step ahead of a Spanish lance, he may conclude that at the very least Bolivar appreciated the value of a fast boat.
4 Two good accounts of the 1891 Chilean Naval Revolution written in English are Clowes, William Laird, Four Modern Naval Campaigns (London: Unit Library, Limited, 1902), pp. 133–85Google Scholar and Wilson, H.W., Ironclads in Action, 2 vols. (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1896) II, pp. 16–34 Google ScholarPubMed.
5 No comprehensive work exists concerning the Argentine Navy’s struggle against Juan Perón. There were also numerous less violent attempts by navies to influence those in power. Regardless of whether winning or losing, violent or non-violnent, the activities of navies are important to understanding the evolution of politics in Latin America.
6 No English language account of the Brazilian landing at Tres Bocas exists. A good synopsis of the landing in Portuguese may be found in Brasil, Academia Militar das Agulhas Negras, Història Militar do Brasil (Resende 1979), I, pp. 66–67.
Clowes’ Four Modern Naval Campaigns does devote a few pages (169–76) to the 1891 Chilean landing but much remains to be done.
7 The most complete secondary sources concerning the Toro Submarino are Gamio, José Valdizan, Tradiciones Navales Peruanas, 2 vols. (Lima: Empresa Gráfica Sanmartín, 1966) II, pp. 224–36Google Scholar, and Galvez, Pedro J., “Submarino, minas, y brulotes en la Guerra del 79 y sus autores,” Revista del Instituto de Estudios Históricos Marítimos del Peru, No. 1 (Enero-Junio 1978) pp. 23–36 Google Scholar.
Luis Jacinto Gomes, a Brazilian naval officer, designed a submarine shaped like a fish, a la Jules Verne’s Nautilus, and tested a model at the Naval Academy in 1892. Although the tests were successful, the boat was not constructed due to a shortage of funds. For a brief description concerning the Brazilian effort see de Souza, Marco Polo A.C., Nossos Submarinos (Rio de Janeiro: Serviço de Documentaçâo Geral da Marinha, 1986), pp. 15–19 Google Scholar.
8 Heinl, Robert Debs Jr. and Heinl, Nancy Gordon, Written in Blood The Story of the Haitian People, 1492–1971 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1978), p. 87 Google Scholar.
9 The United States was concerned enough about Chile’s naval reaction to the 1903 U.S.-backed Panamanian revolution to keep a watchful eye on the readiness of the Chilean Navy. The Secretary of State wrote to the Ambassador:
Navy Department desires information, concerning the whereabouts of Chilean warships, and whether they are in commission. It is important to know what ships are ready for service, and where they are serving. You will discreetly but promptly obtain this information, and transmit by cable, using spelling code to communicate name of war-ships.
20 November 1903 cipher cable from the Secretary of State, John Milton Hay, to the U.S. Ambassador in Chile, Henry Lane Wilson, National Archives, Record Group 59.
10 Cubitt, D.J., “Lord Cochrane and the Chilean Navy (1818–1823).” Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1974 Google Scholar. Also, some work has been done concerning the changing composition of the Brazilian Navy. During the nineteenth century Brazilian crews included ex-slaves and criminals. A high percent were blacks and Indians. Flogging and other harsh corporal punishments led to the 1910 mutiny which brought about profound changes in the personnel policies of the Navy. The ethnic composition of the lower deck changed during the twentieth century with the opening of apprentice schools. Two recent works in Portuguese which address the social history of the Brazilian Navy and focus on the 1910 mutiny are Martins, Helio Leoncio, A Revolta dos Marinheiros 1910. (Rio de Janeiro: Serviço de Documentaçâo da Marinha, 1988)Google Scholar and Morel, Edmar, A Revolta de Chibata (Rio de Janeiro: Graal, 1979)Google Scholar.
11 In fact Argentina has two naval history organizations, Instituto Browniano and the Departamento Estudios Históricos Navales. The first is an independent institute and the second is part of the navy. They share the same location-Avenida Almirante Brown 401, (1155), Capital Federal, Argentina.
Serviço de Documentaçâo Geral da Marinha, Praca Barâo de Ladário, SN, 20091, Rio de Janeiro, RJ (administrative offices, library, and archives) and Serviço de Documentaçâo Geral da Marinha, Rua Dom Manuel, 15, 20010, Rio de Janeiro, RJ (publications and museum).
Instituto de Estudios Históricos Marítimos del Peru, Avenida Salaverry 2487, San Isidro, Lima 27, Peru. The Instituto has a branch entitled La Comisión de Estudios Estratégicos Marítimos dedicated to the research and study of present and future perspectives of Peruvian maritime activities in the political, social, economic, scientific, and legal fields. The commission has organized several seminars and published proceedings such as “Estudio geopolítico histórico de la influencia del Istmo de Panama en el Peru” (1986), “La Bioceanidad del Peru” (1987), “Los Intereses del Peru y la Convención para la reglamentación de las actividades sobre recursos minerales antarticos” (1989), and “Proyecto de Politica Marítima” (1990).
12 Ulibarri, George, and Harrison, John, Guide to Materials on Latin America in the National Archives of the United States (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1974)Google Scholar. Cherpak, Evelyn A., “Latin American Sources in the U.S. Naval War College’s Naval Historical Collection.” Inter-American Review of Bibliography, 35, No. 4 (1985) pp. 422–30Google Scholar.
13 Ritchie, L. A., Guide to Modem Shipbuilding: A Guide to Historical Records (Greenwich: National Maritime Museum, 1980)Google Scholar.
14 Niles Weekly Register (title varies) Baltimore, 1811–1849; Shipping and Commerce List (title varies) New York, 1824-1864; The Manchester Guardian (title varies) Manchester, 1821.
15 United States, 73rd Congress, Senate, Document 206, Part 1, Hearing Before the Special Committee to Investigate the Munitions Industry.
16 Department of the Treasury, Commerce and Navigation of the United States (title varies) (Washington, D.C.: various publishers, 1823-1903). Publication continued by the Department of Commerce and Labor.
17 Lecuna, Vicente, and Bierck, Harold, Selected Writings of Bolivar, 2 vols. (New York: The Colonial Press, Inc., 1951)Google Scholar; de la Peña, Enrique Cardenas, Historia Marítima de Mexico, Guerra de Independencia 1810–1821, 2 vols. (Mexico: Lito Ediciones Olimpia, 1973)Google Scholar. Enrique Cardenas de la Peña, has enriched his excellent analytical Historia Marítima de Mexico, Guerra de Independencia with a companion volume of documents.
18 Manning, William, Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States concerning the Independence of the Latin American Nations, 3 vols. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1925)Google Scholar; Manning, William, Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States: Inter-American Affairs, 1831–1860, 12 vols. (Washington: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1932–39)Google Scholar.
19 U.S. Department of State. Foreign Relations of the United States Diplomatic Papers (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1861-).
20 Dundonald, Thomas, Narrative of Services in the Liberation of Chile, Peru, and Brazil, 2 vols. (London: James Ridgeway, 1859)Google Scholar.
da Motta, Arthur S., Reminiscencias da Guerra do Paraguai (Rio de Janeiro: Serviço de Documentaçâo da Marinha, 1982)Google Scholar and da Motta, Arthur S., De Aspirante a Almirante (Rio de Janeiro: Serviço de Documentaçâo da Marinha, 1984.)Google Scholar Olivieri, Aníbal, Dos Veces Rebelde (Buenos Aires: Ediciones Sigla, 1958)Google Scholar.
21 Curator Section, Naval Historical Center, Building 44, Washington Navy Yard, Washington, D.C. 20374. The photographic collection related to the Panama Canal is in Record Group 185, Still Photographic Branch, National Archives, Washington, D.C. 20408.
22 Argentina, Armada, Historia Marítima Argentina, 8 vols. (Buenos Aires: Cuántica Editora, S.A., 1982)Google Scholar. The volumes of Historia Naval Brasileira (Rio de Janeiro: Serviço de Documentaçâo da Marinha, 1975-) released to date are volume 1, parts 1 and 2 (1975); volume 2, part 2 (1979); and volume 5, part 2 (1985). The first three parts cover from discovery through the early nineteenth century. Volume 5 part two covers from 1919 to present. This leaves the formidable task of addressing the War of the Triple Alliance and the 1893 Naval Revolution among other events. The earlier multi-volume set by the Brazilian Navy is Ministerio da Marinha, Subsidios para a Historia Marítima do Brasil, 25 vols. (Rio de Janeiro: Imprensa Naval, 1938–72). Bade, Rodrigo Fuenzalida, La Armada de Chile, 4 vols. (Valparaiso: Imprenta de Armada, 1975)Google Scholar; Nuñez, Claudio Collados, (ed.) El Poder Naval Chileno, 2 vols. (Valparaiso: Imprenta de la Armada, 1985)Google Scholar. Two other recent publications by the Chilean Navy are Corbalan, Carlos Tromben, Ingeniería Naval (una Especialidad Centenaria) (Valpariso: Imprenta de la Armada, 1989)Google Scholar and Justiniano, Sergio Huidobro, Decisión Naval (Valparaiso: Imprenta de la Armada, 1989)Google Scholar. This last work concerns the navy’s role in the 11 September 1973 overthrow of Salvador Allende. Instituto de Estudios Históricos Marítimos del Peru, Historia Marítima del Peru, 22 vols. (Lima: Editorial Ausonia, 1972).
23 Centro Naval, Boletín del Centro Naval (Buenos Aires, 1882-); Brasil, Revista Marítima Brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 1851—); Chile, , Revista de Marina (Valparaiso and Santiago, 1885-)Google Scholar; and Peru, , Revista de Marina (Callao and Lima, 1915-)Google Scholar. The Naval Department Library, Washington Navy Yard, Building 44, Washington, D.C. 20374, has a partial collection of these periodicals.
24 Mahan, David, Bibliografìa Naval de Chile (Valparaiso: privately published, 1983)Google Scholar; Elias, J.J., Fuentes para el Estudio de la Historia Naval del Peru (Callao: Publicación del Museo Naval del Peru, 1958–60)Google Scholar; Scheina, Robert, “Latinamerikanische Marinen 1890 bis 1980,” Jahresbibliographie 1980 Bibliothek fur Zeitgeschichte (Munchen: Bernard & Graefe Verlag, 1981)Google Scholar.