Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-7cvxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T12:28:20.541Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Reproductive Histories in a Norwegian Twin Population: Evaluation of the Maternal Effect in Early Spontaneous Abortion

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 August 2014

Wendy L. Golden
Wendy L. Golden*
Affiliation:
Department of Medical Genetics, Medical College of Virginia, Richmond

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

An evaluation of the maternal effect on spontaneous abortion and the genetic contribution to various reproductive variables was made using like-sexed twins born between 1915–1946. Health and reproductive questionnaires were sent to 2,365 twin pairs listed in the Norwegian Twin Registry. Zygosity was determined by a questionnaire which proved to be 98% accurate in discriminating between monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins. Verification of the zygosity questionnaire was accomplished by blood cell marker zygosity determination in 200 twin pairs. Data from 428 monozygotic twin pairs (174 male pairs and 254 female pairs) were analyzed by a new model for qualitative traits and a striking maternal effect was found. The results suggested that over 54% of all women may belong to a high risk group who have approximately a 13% risk of early fetal loss. The incidence of first trimester abortions and spontaneous abortion reported by a sample of 915 like-sexed twin pairs and spouses was .079 and .089, respectively; there were no significant differences between male and female pairs.

Other reproductive variables were studied in both MZ and DZ twins including the age of menarche and menopause, the age at marriage and birth of the first child, and the interval between marriage and the first birth. These variables were examined for evidence of genetic effects and secular trends. The mean age of menarche had decreased significantly between the years 1915–1935 and 1936–1946. The secular trend appeared to be environmental in nature and accounted for more than 7% of the overall variation in age of menarche. Sixty-five percent of the variation in the age of menarche was attributed to genetic factors. The mean age of marriage and the mean age at the first birth decreased significantly between 1915–1935 and 1936–1946. Twins born between 1936–1946 also reported fewer pregnancies than did twins born between 1915–1946, but this was statistically significant among MZ twins only; no significant difference in the frequency of spontaneous abortions was found between the 1915–1935 and the 1936–1946 groups.

Although there were occasional groups in which differences were statistically significant, no general trends were identified in comparing couples who reported a spontaneous abortion with those who did not. Traits compared were: the age of menarche, age of marriage, age at first birth, the interval between marriage and first birth and the mean present age of the twins and spouses. Couples reporting a first trimester spontaneous abortion had significantly more total pregnancies than those not reporting a spontaneous abortion. Unaffected pregnancies were also significantly more numerous in couples with a spontaneous abortion compared to those without, suggesting over-compensation for fetal loss.

A maternal effect in spontaneous abortion was indicated by the correlation coefficients found; significant positive correlations were found in both MZ and DZ females but not in males. For total pregnancies and unaffected pregnancies, MZ twins, both male and female, had significant correlation coefficients while DZ twins did not.

Keywords

AbortionFetal DeathTwinsReproductionQuestionnairesMedical GeneticsPopulation GeneticsMenarcheMenopauseMarriage
Type
Research Article
Information
Acta geneticae medicae et gemellologiae: twin research , Volume 30 , Issue 2 , April 1981 , pp. 91 - 165
Copyright
Copyright © The International Society for Twin Studies 1981

References

REFERENCES

1.Ahrons, S (1971): HLA antibodies: Influence on the human fetus. Tissue Antigens 1:129–131.Google Scholar
2.Alberman, E, Polani, PE, Roberts, JAF, Spicer, CC, Elliott, M, Armstrong, E, Dhadial, RK (1972): Parental X-irradiation and chromosome constitution in their spontaneously aborted fetuses. Ann Hum Genet 36:185–194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
3.Alberman, E, Elliots, M, Creasy, M, Dhadial, R (1975): Previous reproductive history in mothers presenting with spontaneous abortions. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 82:366–373.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
4.Alfi, OS, Chang, R, Azen, SP (1980): Evidence for genetic control of nondisjunction in man. Am J Hum Genet 32:477–483.Google Scholar
5.Assali, NS (1972): Pathophysiology of Gestation: Fetal and Neonatal Disorders.” New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
6.Beard, RJ (1976): “The Menopause: A Guide to Current Research and Practice.” Lancaster, England: MTP Press LTD.Google Scholar
7.Beer, AE, Billingham, RE (1974): The embryo as a transplant. Sci Am 230:36–47.Google Scholar
8.Behrman, SJ, Kistner, RW (1975): “Progress in Infertility,” 2nd Ed. Boston: Little Brown.Google Scholar
9.Berenberg, W, Nankervis, G (1970): Long-term follow-up of cytomegalic inclusion disease of infancy. Pediatrics 46:403–410.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
10.Bergsten-Brucefors, A (1976): A note on the accuracy of recalled age of menarche. Ann Hum Biol 3:71–73.Google Scholar
11.Block, MF, Rahhal, DK (1976): Cervical incompetance. A diagnostic and prognostic scoring system. Obstet Gynecol 47:279–281.Google Scholar
12.Bodmer, WF (1961): Effects of maternal age on the incidence of congenital abnormalities in mouse and man. Nature 190:1134–1135.Google Scholar
13.Boué, A, Loffredo, V (1970): Avortaient causé par le virus de l'herpès type-2 isolement du virus à partir de culture de tissue zygotique. Presse Med 78:103–106.Google Scholar
14.Boué, J, Boué, A (1973): Chromosome analysis of two consecutive abortuses in each of 43 women. Hum Genet 19:275–280.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
15.Boué, J, Boué, A, Lazar, P (1975): Retrospective and prospective epidemiological studies of 1500 karyotyped spontaneous human abortions. Teratology 12:11–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16.Boulos, BM (1976): Special problems of lead in women workers. In Carnow, BW (ed): “NIOSH: Health Effects of Occupational Lead and Arsenic Exposure: A Symposium.” Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, publication No. 76-134.Google Scholar
17.Bronsky, D, Weisberg, MG, Gross, MC, Barron, JJ (1970): Hyperparathyroidism and acute postpartum pancreastitis with neonatal tetany in the child. Am J Med Sci 260:160–164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
18.Bruntland, GH, Walloe, L (1973): Menarchal age in Norway: Halt in the trend towards earlier maturation. Nature 241:478–479.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
18a.Bullough, VL (1981): Age at menarche: A misunderstanding. Science 213:365–366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
19.Burke, J, Johansen, K (1974): The formation of HLA antibodies in pregnancy. The antigenicity of aboted and tem fetuses. J Obstet Gynecol Br Commonw 81:222–226.Google Scholar
20.Burrow, GN (1972): The thyroid gland in pregnancy. In: “Major Problems in Obstetrics and Gynecology.” Philadelphia: WB Saunders.Google Scholar
21.Buschbaum, HJ (1979): “Trauma in Pregnancy.” Philadelphia: WB Saunders.Google Scholar
22.Byrd, JR, Askew, DE, McDonough, PG (1977): Cytogenetic findings in 55 couples with recurrent fetal wastage. Fertil Steril 28:246–250.Google Scholar
23.Chandley, AC, Christie, S, Fletcher, J (1973): Translocation heterozygosity and associated subfertility in man. Cytogenetics 11:516–533.Google Scholar
24.Chung, CS, Morton, NE (1961): Selection at the ABO locus. Am J Hum Genet 13:9–27.Google Scholar
25.Clayberg, CD (1959): Cytogenetic studies of precocious meiotic centromere division in Lycopersicon esculentum. Genetics 44:1335–1346.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
26.Cohen, BH, Sayre, JE (1968): Further observations on the relationship of maternal ABO and Rh types to fetal death. Am J Hum Genet 20:310–360.Google Scholar
27.Cohen, BH (1970): ABO and Rh incompatibility. I. Fetal and neonatal mortality with ABO and Rh incompatibility: Some new interpretations. Am J Hum Genet 22:412–440.Google Scholar
28.Cohen, BH (1970): ABO and Rh incompatibility. II. Is there a dual interaction in combined ABO and Rh incompatibility? Am J Hum Genet 22:441–449.Google Scholar
29.Cohen, EN, Bruce, DL (1974): Occupational diseases among operating-room personnel: A national study. Anesthesiology 41:321–340.Google Scholar
30.Connelly, JP, Reynolds, S, Crawford, JD (1964): Viral and drug hazards in pregnancy. Clin Pediat 3:587–597.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
31.Corey, LA, Nance, WE, Berg, KA (1977): A new tool in birth defect research: The MZ half-sib model and its extension to grandchildren of identical twin. In: “Annual Review of Birth Defects.” New York: Alan R. Liss.Google Scholar
32.Corey, LA, Winter, RM, Golden, WL, Eaves, LJ, Nance, WE (1978): The MZ half-sib design: An approach to the etiology of clefting. Proc 2nd Int Workshop Facial Clefting, 12 1978.Google Scholar
33.Craig, CFT (1973): Congenital abnormalities of the uterus and foetal wastage. S Afr Med J 47:2000–2005.Google Scholar
34.Creasy, MR, Crolla, JA, Alberman, ED (1976): A cytogenetic study of human spontaneous abortions using banding techniques. Hum Genet 31:177–196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
35.Davis, G (1963): Autosomal behavior in claret-nondisjunctional Drosophila females. Proc XIth Int Congr Genet 1:127–128.Google Scholar
36.Driscoll, SG, Kundsin, RB, Horne, HW (1969): Infections and first trimester losses: Possible role of mycoplasma. Fertil Steril 20:1017–1019.Google Scholar
37.Drury, MI, Greene, AT, Strange, JM (1978): Pregnancy complicated by clinical diabetes mellitus; a study of 600 pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol 49:519–522.Google Scholar
38.Elston, RC (1980): Parameter estimation and testing hypotheses. In Mielke, JH, Crawford, MH: “Current Developments in Anthropological Measurements.” New York: Plenum.Google Scholar
39.Falconer, DS (1960) “Introduction to Quantitative Genetics.” Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.Google Scholar
40.Falconer, DS (1965): The inheritance of liability to certain diseases estimated from the incidence among relatives. Ann Hum Genet (Lond) 29:51–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
41.Fenton, AN, Singh, BP (1952): Pregnancy associated with congenital abnormalities of the female reproductive tract. Am J Obstet Gynecol 63:744–745.Google Scholar
42.Fischbein, S (1977): Onset of puberty in MZ and DZ twins. Acta Genet Med Gemellol 26:151–158.Google Scholar
43.Franklin, RR, Dukes, CI (1964): Anti-spermatozoal antibody and unexplained infertility. Am J Osbtet Gynecol 89:6–9.Google Scholar
44.Garewal, G, Sehgal, S, Aikat, BK, Gupta, AN (1978): Cell-mediated immunity in pregnant patients with and without a previous history of spontaneous abortion. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 85:221–224.Google Scholar
45.Genest, P (1979): Chrosomome variants and abonormalities detected in 51 married couples with repeated spontaneous abortion. Clin Genet 16:387–389.Google Scholar
46.Gibson, M, Tulchinsky, D (1980): The maternal thyroid. In: “Maternal-Fetal Endocrinology.” Philadelphia: WB Saunders.Google Scholar
47.Glass, RH, Golbus, MS (1978): Habitual abortion. Fertil Steril 29:257–265.Google Scholar
48.Gowen, JW (1933): Meiosis as a genetic character in Drosophila melanogaster. J Exp Zool 65:83–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
49.Green, LK, Harns, RE (1976): Uterine anomalies. Obstet Gynecol 47:427–429.Google ScholarPubMed
50.Greenman, GW, Gabrielson, MA, Howar-Flanders, I, Wessel, MA (1962): Thyroid dysfunction in pregnancy: Fetal loss and follow-up evaluation of surviving infants. N Engl J Med 267:426–431.Google Scholar
51.Gropp, A, Giers, D, Kolbus, (1974): Trisomy in the fetal backcross progeny of male and female metacentric heterozygotes of the mouse. Cytogenet Cell Genet 13:511–523.Google Scholar
52.Halbrecht, I, Komlos, L (1968): Lymphocyte transformation in mixed wife-husband leukocyte cultures in abortions and hydatidiform moles. Obstet Gynecol 31:173–177.Google Scholar
53.Hamerton, JL (1968): Robertsonian translocations in man: Evidence for prezygotic selection. Cytogenetics 7:260–268.Google Scholar
54.Hamerton, JL (1971): “Human Cytogenetics II.” New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
55.Hamerton, JL, Gianelli, F, Polani, PE (1965): Cytogenetics of Down's syndrome. 1. Data on a consecutive series of patients referred for genetic counseling and diagnosis. Cytogenetics 4:171–183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
56.Hamerton, JL, Canning, N, Ray, M, Smith, S (1975): A cytogenetic survey of 14,069 newborn infants. 1. Incidence of chromosome abnormalities. Clin Genet 8:223–243.Google Scholar
57.Hensleigh, PA, Fainstat, T (1979): Corpus luteum dysfunction: Serum progesterone levels in diagnosis and assessmental therapy for recurrent and threatened abortion. Fertil Steril 32:396–400.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
58.Hemandez-Horta, JL, Gordilla Fernandez, J, Soto de Leon, F, Cortez-Gallegos, V (1977): Direct evidence of luteal insufficiency in women with habitual abortion. Obstet Gynecol 49:706–708.Google Scholar
59.Holbek, S, Friedrich, U, Lauritsen, JG, Therkelsen, AJ (1974): Marker chromosomes in parents of spontaneous abortuses. Hum Genet 25:61–64.Google Scholar
60.Infante, PF (1976): Genetic risks of vinylchloride. Lancet 1:734–735.Google Scholar
61.Jacobs, PA, Frackiewicz, A, Law, P, Hilditch, CJ, Morton, NE (1975): The effect of structural aberrations of the chromosomes on reproductive fitness in man. Clin Genet 8:169–178.Google Scholar
62.Jacobs, PA, Angell, RR, Buchanan, IM, Hassold, TJ, Matsuyama, AM, Manuel, B (1978): The origin of human triploids. Ann Hum Genet 42:49–58.Google Scholar
63.James, WH (1963): Notes toward an epidemiology of spontaneous abortion. Am J Genet 15:223–240.Google Scholar
64.Jenkins, DM, Hancock, KW (1972): Maternal unresponsiveness to paternal histocompatibility antigens in human pregnancy. Transplantation 13:618–619.Google Scholar
65.Johnstone, RE II, Kreindler, T, Johnston, RE (1972): Hyperparathyroidism during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 40:580–585.Google Scholar
66.Jonasson, J, Therkelsen, AJ, Lauritsen, JC, Lindsten, J (1972): Origin of triploidy in human abortuses. Hereditas (Lund) 71:168–171.Google Scholar
67.Jones, WS, Man, EB (1969): Thyroid function in human pregnancy. VI. Premature deliveries and reproductive failures of pregnant women with low serum butanol-extractable iodines, maternal serum TBG and TBPA capacities. Am J Obstet Gynecol 104:909–928.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
68.Jones, GS (1975): Luteal phase defects. In Behrman, SJ, Kistner, RW (eds): “Progress in Infertility,” 2nd ed. Boston: Little Brown.Google Scholar
69.Kajii, T, Ohama, K, Niikawa, N, Ferrier, A, Avirachan, S (1973): Banding analysis of abnormal karyotypes in spontaneous abortion. Am J Hum Genet 25:539.Google ScholarPubMed
70.Kajii, T, Ferrier, A (1978): Cytogenetics of aborters and abortuses. Am J Obstet Gynecol 131:33–38.Google Scholar
71.Kaplan, EB, Elsten, RC (1972): A subroutine package for maximum likelihood estimation (Maxlik). School of Public Health, University of North Carolina, Institute of Statistics Mimeo Series No. 823.Google Scholar
72.Kimball, AC, Kean, BH, Fuch, SF (1971): The role of toxoplasmosis in abortion. Am J Obstet Gynecol 111:219–226.Google Scholar
73.Kline, J II (1978): An epidemiological study of the role of gravidity in spontaneous abortion. Early Hum Dev 1:345–356.Google Scholar
74.Klopper, A, MacNaughton, MC (1965): Hormones in recurrent abortion. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Commonw 72:1022–1028.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
75.Kriel, RL, Gates, GA, Wulff, H, Powell, N, Poland, JD, and Chinn, TDY (1970): Cytomegalovirus isolations associated with pregnancy wastage. Am J Obset Gynecol 106:885–892.Google Scholar
76.Kringlen, E (1978): The Norwegian Twin Register. Prog Clin Biol Res 24, Pt B:185–187.Google Scholar
77.Krugman, S (1969): International Conference on Rubella Immunization. Am J Dis Child 118:1–410.Google Scholar
78.Kumar, ML, Nankervis, G, Gold, E (1973): Inapparent congenital cytomegalovirus infection; a follow-up study. N Engl J Med 28:1370–1372.Google Scholar
79.Lang, DJ (1975): The epidemiology of cytomegalovirus infections: Interpretation of recent observations. In Krugman, S, Gershon, AA (eds): “Progress in Clinical Biological Research,” Vol 3. New York: Alan R. Liss.Google Scholar
80.Lauritsen, JG (1976): Aetiology of spontaneous abortion: A cytogenetic and epidemiological study of 288 abortuses and their parents. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand Suppl 52:1–29.Google Scholar
81.Lauritsen, JG (1977): Genetic aspects of spontaneous abortion. Dan Med Bull 24(5):169–189.Google Scholar
82.Lauritsen, JG, Friedrich, U (1976): Origin of the extra chromosome in trisomy 16. Clin Genet 10:156–163.Google Scholar
83.Lauritsen, JG, Jogenson, J, Kissmeyer-Nielson, F (1976): Significance of HLA and blood group incompatibility in spontaneous abortion. Clin Genet 9:575–582.Google Scholar
84.Lauritsen, JG, Kristensen, T, Grunnet, N (1976): Depressed mixed lymphocyte culture reactivity in mothers with recurrent spontaneous abortion. Am J Obstet Gynecol 125:35–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
85.Leridon, H (1977): “Human Fertility: The Basic Components.” Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
86.Lesley, JW (1932): Trisomie types of the tomato and their relation to the genes. Genetics 17:545–559.Google Scholar
87.Lesley, JW, Frost, HB (1927): Medelian inheritance of chromosome shape in Mattiola. Genetics 12:449–460.Google Scholar
88.Leven, H, Rosenfield, RE (1962): ABO incompatibility. Progr Med Genet 1:120–157.Google Scholar
89.Levine, P (1943): Serological factors as possible causes in spontaneous abortion. J Hered 34:71–80.Google Scholar
90.Lewis, J, Wang, J, Nagel, B, Oppenheim, JJ, Perry, S (1966): Lymphocyte transformation in mixed lymphocyte cultures in women with normal pregnancy or tumors of placental origin. Am J Obstet Gynecol 96:287–293.Google Scholar
91.Lindenbaum, RH, Bobrow, M (1975): Reciprocal translocations in man: 3:1 meiotic disjunction resulting in 47- or 45-chromosome offspring. J Med Genet 12:29–43.Google Scholar
92.Lindsten, J, Holmberg, M, Hulten, M, Jonasson, J, Licznerski, G, Therkelsen, AJ (1975): Application of fluorescence analysis of chromosomes in clinical cytogenetics. In Proc Nobel Symp, Stockholm, 1975.Google Scholar
93.Llewellyn-Jones, D (1977): “Fundamentals of Obstetrics and Gynaecology,” Vol 1. “Obstetrics.” London: Faber and Faber.Google Scholar
94.Lub, HA, Ruddle, FH (1971): Applications of quantitative karyotype to chromosome variation in 4400 consecutive newborns. In Lub, HA, Ruddle, FH, (eds): “Human Population Cytogenetic.” Edinburgh: University Press.Google Scholar
95.Lynch, FW (1953): Dermatologie conditions of the fetus. Arch Dermatol Syphilol 26:997–1019.Google Scholar
96.Lykken, DT (1978): Volunteer bias in twin research: The rule of two-thirds. Soc Biol 25:1–9.Google Scholar
97.MacCluer, JW (1978): On the probability of demonstrating differential fertility in genetic studies. Ann Hum Genet 42:59–75.Google Scholar
98.MacDonald, RR (1978): “Scientific Basis of Obstetrics and Gynaecology.” Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.Google Scholar
99.MacNaughton, MC (1964): The probability of recurrent abortion. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Comm 71:784–791.Google Scholar
100.Mardh, PA, Ripa, T, Svensson, L, Westrom, L (1977): Chlandia trachomatis infection in patients with acute salpingitis. N Engl J Med 296:1377–1379.Google Scholar
101.Mather, K, Jinks, JL (1971): “Biometrical Genetics: The Study of Continuous Variation.” New York: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
102.McConnell, HD, Carr, DH (1975): Recent advances in the cytogenetic study of human spontaneous abortions. Obstet Gynecol 45:547–553.Google Scholar
103.McLennan, HH (1947): Cytogenetic studies of a strain of barley with long chromosomes. MSc Thesis, University Minnesota, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
104.Mennuti, MT, Jingeleski, S, Schwarz, RH, Mellman, WJ (1978): An evaluation of cytogenetic analysis of recurrent pregnancy wastage. Obstet Gynecol 52:308–313.Google Scholar
105.Meyer, MB, Jonas, BS, Tonascia, JS (1976): Perinatel events associated with maternal smoking during pregnancy. Am J Epidemiol 103:464–476.Google Scholar
106.Michalas, S, Prevedourakis, C, Lolis, D, Antsaklis, A (1976): Effect of congenital uterine abnormalities on pregnancy. Int Surg 61:557–558.Google ScholarPubMed
107.Mikelsaar, AVN, Tuur, SJ, Kaosaar, ME (1973): Human karyotype polymorphism. 1. Routine and fluorescence of microscopic investigation of chromosomes in a normal adult population. Hum Genet 20:89–101.Google Scholar
108.Mikkelsen, M, Hallberg, A, Poulsen, H (1976): Maternal and paternal origin of the extra chromosome in trisomy 21. Hum Genet 32:17–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
109.Miller, JG, Williamson, E, Blue, J (1980): Fetal loss after implantation: A prospective study. Lancet 2:554–556.Google Scholar
110.Murthy, YS, Arronet, GH, Parekh, MC (1970): Luteal phase inadequacy. Obstet Gynecol 36:758–761.Google Scholar
111.Mutton, DE (1973): Origin of the trisomic 21 chromosome. Lancet 1:375.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
112.Naeye, RL (1979): The outcome of diabetic pregnancies: A prospective study. In: “Pregnancy Metabolism, Diabetes and the Fetus.” CIBA Foundat Symp 63. New York: Excerpta Medica.Google Scholar
113.Nahmias, AJ, Josey, WE, Naib, ZM, Freeman, MG, Fernandez, RJ, Wheeler, JH (1971): Perinatel risk associated with maternal genital herpes simplex virus infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol 110:825–837.Google Scholar
114.Naib, AM, Nahmias, AJ, Josey, WE, Facog, MD, Wheeler, JH (1970): Association of maternal genital herpeatic infection with spontaneous abortion. Obstet Gynecol 35:260–263.Google Scholar
115.Nance, WE, Corey, LA, Boughman, JA (1978): Monozygotic twin kinships. A new design for genetic and epidemiologic research. In Morton, N, Chung, CS (eds): “Genetic Epidemiology.” New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
116.Neu, RL, Entes, K, Bannerman, RM (1979): Chromosome analysis in cases with repeated spontaneous abortion. Obstet Gynecol 53:373–375.Google Scholar
117.Nielsen, J (1978): Large Y chromosome (Yqt) and increased risk of abortion. Clin Genet 13:415–416.Google Scholar
118.Niswander, KR, Gordon, M, Berendes, HW (1972): “The Women and Their Pregnancies.” Philadelphia: WB Saunders.Google Scholar
119.Ohama, K, Kadotani, T (1971): Lymphocyte reaction in mixed wife-husband leukocyte cultures in relation to infertility. Am J Obstet Gynecol 109:477–480.Google Scholar
120.Opitz, JM, Shapiro, SS, Uehling, DT (1979): Genetic causes and work-up of male and female infertility. 1. Prenatal reproductive loss. Post Grad Med 65:247–252.Google Scholar
121.Oshimura, M, Tazagi, N (1975): Meiotic disjunction in T (14;15) 6 Ca heterozygotes and the fate of chromosomally unbalanced gametes in embryonic development. Cytogenet Cell Genet 15:1–15.Google Scholar
122.Patil, SR, Lubs, HA (1977): A possible association of long Y chromosomes and fetal loss. Hum Genet 35:233–235.Google Scholar
123.Pederson, J, Molsted-Pederson, L, Anderson, R (1974): Assessors of fetal perinatel mortality in diabetic pregnance. Diabetes 23:302–305.Google Scholar
124.Penrose, LS (1953): The genetical background of common diseases. Acta Genet 4:257–265.Google Scholar
125.Petri, E (1935): Untersuchungen zur Erbbedingtheit der Marche. Z Morph Anthrop 33:43–48 (cited by Tanner JM [156]).Google Scholar
126.Poland, BJ, Miller, JR, Jones, DC, Trimble, BK (1977): Reproductive counseling in patients who have had a spontaneous abortion. Am J Obstet Gynecol 127:685–690.Google Scholar
127.Rabau, E, David, A (1963): Listeria monocytogenes in abortion. J Obstet Gynecol Br Comm 70:481–482.Google Scholar
128.Reic, ED, Ryan, KJ, Benirschke, K (1972): Principles and management of human reproduction. Philadelphia: WB Saunders.Google Scholar
129.Roberts, CJ, Lowe, CR (1975): Where have all the conceptions gone? Lancet 1:498.Google Scholar
130.Roberts, JAF (1973): “An Introduction to Medical Genetics,” 6th Ed London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
131.Robinson, JA (1973): Origin of extra chromosome 21. Lancet 1:131–133.Google Scholar
132.Rocklin, RE, Kitzmiller, JL, Carpenter, CB, Garovoy, MR, David, JR (1976): Maternal fetal relation. N Engl J Med 295:1209–1218.Google Scholar
133.Rose, RJ, Boughman, JA, Corey, LA, Nance, WE, Christian, JC, Kang, KW (1980): Data from kinships of monozygotic twins indicate maternal effects on verbal intelligance. Nature 283:375–377.Google Scholar
134.Roth, B (1963): The frequency of spontaneous abortion. Internal J Fertil 8:431.Google Scholar
135.Rushtom, DI (1978): Simplified classification of spontaneous abortions. J Med Genet 15:1–9.Google Scholar
136.Russell, R, Taylor, WB, Madison, H (1966): Some effects of smoking on pregnancy. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Comm 73:742–796.Google Scholar
137.Sanotskii, D (1976): Aspects of the toxicology of chloroprene: immediate and long-term effects. Environ Health Perspect 17:85–93.Google Scholar
138.Sasaki, M, Hara, Y (1973): Paternal origin of the extra chromosome in Down's syndrome. Lancet 2:1257–1258.Google Scholar
139. “SAS User's Guide” (1979). Raleigh, North Carolina: SAS Institute Statistical Analysis System.Google Scholar
140.Schacter, B, Muir, A, Gyves, M, Tasin, M (1979): HLA-A,B, compatibility in parents of offspring with neural tube defects or couples experiencing involuntary fetal wastage. Lancet 1:796–799.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
141.Siegel, M, Fuerst, HT, Peress, NS (1966): Comparative fetal mortality in maternal diseases: A prospective study on rubella, measles, mumps, chicken pox and hepatitis. N Engl J Med 274:768–771.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
142.Simmons, RL, Russell, WH: The histocompatibility of antigens of fertilized mouse eggs and tropho-blast. Ann NY Acad Sci 129:35–45.Google Scholar
143.Simpson, JL (1972): Genetic aspects of gynecologic disorders in 46,XX individuals. Clin Obstet Gynecol 15:157–182.Google Scholar
144.Smith, C (1974): Concordance in twins: Methods and interpretation. Am J Hum Genet 26:454–466.Google Scholar
145.Snedecor, GW, Cochran, WG (1967): “Statistical Methods,” 6th Ed. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.Google Scholar
146.Sompolinsky, D, Solomon, F, Elkina, L, Weinraub, Z, Bukovsky, I, Caspi, E (1975): Infections with mycoplasma and bacteria in induced mid trimester abortion and fetal loss. Am J Obstet Gynecol 121:610–616.Google Scholar
147.Stage, AM (1973): Severe burns in the pregnant patient. Obstet Gynecol 42:259–261.Google Scholar
148.Steinberg, AG (1959): Methodology in human genetics. J Med Educat 34:315–334.Google Scholar
149.Stenchever, MA, Parks, KJ, Daines, TL, Allen, MA, Stenchever, MC (1977): Cytogenetics of habitual abortion and other reproductive wastage. Am J Obstet Gynecol 127:143–150.Google Scholar
150.Stevenson, AC, Dudgeon, MY, McClure, HI (1959): Observations on the results of pregnancies in women resident in Belfast. Amm Hum Genet 23:395–411.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
151.Stevenson, RE (1977): “The Fetus and Newly Born Infant: Influences of the Prenatal Environment.” St. Louis: CV Mosby.Google Scholar
152.Stimson, WH, Strachan, AF, Shepherd, A (1979): Studies on the maternal immune response to placental antigens: The absence of blocking factor from the blood of abortion-prone women. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 86:41–45.Google Scholar
153.Stray-Pederson, B (1978): Uterine T-mycoplasma colonization in reproduction failure. Am J Obstet Gynecol 130:307–311.Google Scholar
154.Takano, K, Miller, JR (1972): ABO incompatibility as a cause of spontaneous abortion. Evidence from abortuses. J Med Genet 19:144–160.Google Scholar
155.Talbert, LM, Thomas, CG, Holt, WA, Rankin, P (1970): Hyperthyroidism during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 36:779–784.Google Scholar
156.Tanner, JM (1960): Genetics of human growth. In Tanner, JM (ed): “Symposia on the Society for the Study of Human Biology,” Vol 3; “Human Growth.” New York: Pergamon.Google Scholar
157.Tanner, JM (1973): Trend toward earlier menarche in London, Oslo, Copenhagen, Netherlands and Hungary. Nature 243:95–96.Google Scholar
158.Tho, TP, Byrd, JR, McDonough, PG (1979): Etiologies and subsequent reproductive performance of 100 couples with recurrent abortion. Fertil Steril 32:389–395.Google Scholar
159.Tisserand-Perrier, M (1953): Etude comparative de certain processus de croissance chez les jumeaux. J Genet Hum 2:87–102.Google Scholar
160.Tobin, JO, Jones, DM, Fleck, DG (1977): Aetiology, diagnosis, prevention and control of infection affecting pregnancy in humans. In Coid, CR (ed): “Infection and Pregnancy.” London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
161.Tulchinsky, D, Ryan, KJ (1980): “Maternal-Fetal Endocrinology.” Philadelphia: WB Saunders.Google Scholar
162.Uchida, IA (1973): Paternal origin of the extrachromosome in Down's syndrome. Lancet 2:1258.Google Scholar
163.Uchida, IA, Lin, CC (1972): Identification of triploid genome by fluorescence microscopy. Science 176:304–326.Google Scholar
164.Vor herr, H (1972): Disorders of uterine functions during pregnancy, labor and Puerperium. In Assali, NS: “Pathophysiolody of Gestation I.” New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
165.Wagenbichler, P, Killian, W, Relt, A, Schnedl, W (1976): Origin of the extra chromosome 21 in Down's syndrome. Hum Genet 32:31–16.Google Scholar
166.Wallace, RB, Wilk, VA (1979): Occupational hazards. In Bachsbaum, HJ (ed): “Trauma in Pregnancy.” Philadelphia: WB Saunders.Google Scholar
167.Warburton, D, Fraser, FC (1964): Spontaneous abortion risks in man: Data from reproductive histories collected in a medical genetics unit. Am J Hum Genet 16:1–25.Google Scholar
168.Warburton, D, Susser, M, Stein, Z, Kline, J (1979): Genetic and epidemiologic investigation of spontaneous abortion: Relevance to clinical practice. Birth Defect 15:127–136.Google Scholar
169.Ward, BE, Henry, GP, Robinson, A (1980): Cytogenetic studies of 100 couples with recurrent spontaneous abortions. Am J Hum Genet 32:549–554.Google Scholar
170.Wear, LE (1967): Uterine myoma as a heriditary disease. Lancet 1:25–27.Google Scholar
171.Wilson, L (1954): Sperm agglutinins in human semen and blood. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 85:652–661.Google Scholar
172.Witschi, E (1970): Teratogenetic effects from overripeness of the egg. In: “Congenital Malformations.” Amsterdam: Excerpta Med Int Con Ser No 204.Google Scholar