Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T06:35:15.815Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Pneumonia in endangered aquatic mammals and the need for developing low-coverage vaccination for their management and conservation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 December 2020

Ghulam Nabi ,
Richard W. McLaughlin ,
Suliman Khan Open the ORCID record for Suliman Khan [Opens in a new window] ,
Yujiang Hao  and
Ming Xian Chang
Ghulam Nabi*
Affiliation:
Department of Cerebrovascular Disorders, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou450001, Henan, People's Republic of China Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Hebei Province, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang050024, China
Richard W. McLaughlin
Affiliation:
General Studies, Gateway Technical College, Kenosha, WI53144, USA
Suliman Khan*
Affiliation:
Department of Cerebrovascular Disorders, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou450001, Henan, People's Republic of China
Yujiang Hao
Affiliation:
Institute of Hydrobiology, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan430072, Hubei Province, People's Republic of China
Ming Xian Chang*
Affiliation:
State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan430072, Hubei Province, People's Republic of China University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19 Yuquan Road, Shijingshan District, Beijing100049, People's Republic of China
*
Authors for correspondence: Suliman Khan, E-mail: suliman.khan18@mails.ucas.ac.cn; Ming Xian Chang, Email: mingxianchang@ihb.ac.cn; Ghulam Nabi, Email: ghulamnabiqau@gmail.com
Authors for correspondence: Suliman Khan, E-mail: suliman.khan18@mails.ucas.ac.cn; Ming Xian Chang, Email: mingxianchang@ihb.ac.cn; Ghulam Nabi, Email: ghulamnabiqau@gmail.com
Authors for correspondence: Suliman Khan, E-mail: suliman.khan18@mails.ucas.ac.cn; Ming Xian Chang, Email: mingxianchang@ihb.ac.cn; Ghulam Nabi, Email: ghulamnabiqau@gmail.com
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Anthropogenic activities can lead to several devastating effects on the environment. The pollutants, which include the discharge of effluents, runoffs in the form of different lethal and sub-lethal concentrations of pesticides, heavy metals, and other contaminants, can harm exposed fauna and flora. The aquatic environment is the ultimate destination for many pollutants which negatively affect aquatic biodiversity and even can cause a species to become extinct. A pollutant can directly affect the behavior of an animal, disrupt cellular systems, and impair the immune system. This harm can be reduced and even mitigated by adopting proper approaches for the conservation of the target biota. Among aquatic organisms, cetaceans, such as the Yangtze finless porpoise, Irrawaddy dolphin, Ganges River dolphin, Amazon River dolphin, and Indus River dolphin, are at a higher risk of extinction because of lack of knowledge and research, and thus insufficient information with respect to their conservation status, management, and policies. Pneumonia is one of the leading causes of mass mortalities of cetaceans. This article reviews the limited research reported on stress and pneumonia induced by pollution, stress-induced pneumonia and immunosuppression, pneumonia-caused mass mortalities of aquatic mammals, and vaccination in wildlife with a specific focus on aquatic mammals, the role of genomics in vaccine development and vaccination, and the major challenges in vaccine development for biodiversity conservation.

Keywords

Cetaceansgenomicsmortalitiespneumoniapollutionstressvaccination
Type
Review Article
Information
Animal Health Research Reviews , Volume 21 , Issue 2 , December 2020 , pp. 122 - 130
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Afzal, MF, Shaukat, SS, Zafar, MU and Abbas, Q (2012) Variation pattern of heavy metal concentrations during pre- and post-monsoon seasons in the surface water of River Indus (Sindh Province). World Applied Sciences Journal 19, 582–587.Google Scholar
Akamatsu, T, Wang, D, Wang, K, Wei, Z, Zhao, Q and Naito, Y (2002) Diving behavior of freshwater finless porpoises (Neophocaena phocaenoides) in an oxbow of the Yangtze River, China. Journal of Marine Science 59, 438–443.Google Scholar
Anderson, RM and May, RM (1992) Infectious Diseases of Humans, Dynamics and Control. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Avalos-Te´llez, R, Sua´rez-Güemes, F, Carrillo-Casas, E, Herna´ndez- Castro, R and Me´ndez-Vilas, A (2010) Bacteria and yeast normal microbiota from respiratory tract and genital area of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Current Research, Technology and Education Topics in Applied Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology 2, 666–673.Google Scholar
Baker, JR (1992) Causes of mortality and parasites and incidental lesions in dolphins and whales from British waters. Veterinary Record 130, 569–572.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baker, JR and Martin, AR (1992) Causes of mortality and parasites and incidental lesions in harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) from British waters. Veterinary Record 130, 554–558.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beasley, I, Pollock, K, Jefferson, TA, Arnold, P, Morse, L, Yim, S, Lor Kim, S and Marsh, H (2013) Likely future extirpation of another Asian river dolphin: the critically endangered population of the Irrawaddy dolphin in the Mekong River is small and declining. Marine Mammal Science 29, E226–E252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bennett, PM, Jepson, PD, Law, RJ, Jones, BR, Kuiken, T, Baker, JR, Rogan, E and Kirkwood, JK (2001) Exposure to heavy metals and infectious disease mortality in harbour porpoises from England and Wales. Environmental Pollution 112, 33–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Best, RC and da Silva, VMF (1993) Inia geoffrensis. Mammalian Species 426, 1–8.Google Scholar
Brand, CJ (2013) Wildlife mortality investigation and disease research: contributions of the USGS national wildlife health center to endangered species management and recovery. Ecohealth 10, 446–454.10.1007/s10393-013-0897-4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braulik, GT, Arshad, M, Noureen, U and Northridge, SP (2014) Habitat fragmentation and species extirpation in freshwater ecosystems; causes of range decline of the Indus River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica minor). PLoS ONE 9, e101657.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braulik, GT, Barnett, R, Odon, V, Islas-Villanueva, V, Hoelzel, AR and Graves, JA (2015a) One species or two? Vicariance, lineage divergence and low mtDNA diversity in geographically isolated populations of South Asian river dolphin. Journal of Mammalian Evolution 22, 111–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braulik, GT, Uzma, N, Masood, A and Randall, RR (2015b) Review of status, threats, and conservation management options for the endangered Indus River blind dolphin. Biological Conservation 192, 30–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brochier, B, Kieny, MP, Costy, F, Coppens, P, Bauduin, B, Lecocq, JP, Languet, B, Chappuis, G, Desmettre, P, Afiademanyo, K, Libois, R and Pastoret, PP (1991) Large-scale eradication of rabies using recombinant vaccinia-rabies vaccine. Nature 354, 520–522.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buck, JD (1980) Occurrence of human-associated yeast in the feces and pool waters of captive bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 16, 141–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buck, JD, Bubucis, PM and Spotte, S (1988) Microbiological characterization of three Atlantic whiteside dolphins (Lagenorhynchus acutus) from stranding through captivity with subsequent rehabilitation and release of one animal. Zoo Biology 7, 133–138.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cain, DW and Cidlowski, JA (2017) Immune regulation by glucocorticoids. Nature Reviews Immunology 17, 233–247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carpenter, JW, Appel, MJ, Erickson, RC and Novilla, MN (1976) Fatal vaccine-induced canine distemper virus infection in black-footed ferrets. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 169, 961–964.Google ScholarPubMed
Carter, SD, Hughes, DE, Taylor, VJ and Bell, SC (1992) Immune responses in common and grey seals during the seal epizootic. Science of the Total Environment 115, 83–91.10.1016/0048-9697(92)90034-PCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caswell, JL (2013) Failure of respiratory defenses in the pathogenesis of bacterial pneumonia of cattle. Veterinary Pathology 1, 1–17.Google Scholar
Chang, GJ, Davis, BS, Stringfield, C and Lutz, C (2007) Prospective immunization of the endangered Cakifornia condors (Gymnogyps californianus) protects this species from lethal West Nile virus infection. Vaccine 25, 2325–2330.10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.11.056CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chrousos, GP (1995) The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and immune-mediated inflammation. New England Journal of Medicine 332, 1351–1362.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
da Silva, PSL and Pereira, GH (2013) Elizabethkingia meningoseptica: emergent bacteria causing pneumonia in a critically ill child. Paediatrics International 55, 231–234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
da Silva, VMF, Freitas, CEC, Dias, RL and Martin, AR (2018) Both cetaceans in the Brazilian Amazon show sustained, profound population declines over two decades. PLoS ONE 13, e0191304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daszak, P, Cunningham, AA and Hyatt, AD (2000) Emerging infectious diseases of wildlife: threats to biodiversity and human health. Science (New York, N.Y.) 287, 443–449.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davidson, AD, Boyer, AG, Kim, H, Pompa-Mansilla, S, Hamilton, MJ, Costa, DP, Ceballos, G and Brown, JH (2012) Drivers and hotspots of extinction risk in marine mammals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 109, 3395–3400.10.1073/pnas.1121469109CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Desforges, JP, Sonne, C, Levin, M, Siebert, U, De, GS and Dietz, R (2016) Immunotoxic effects of environmental pollutants in marine mammals. Environmental International 86, 126–139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Swart, RL, Harder, TC, Ross, PS, Vos, HW and Osterhaus, AD (1995) Morbilliviruses and morbillivirus diseases of marine mammals. Infectious Agents and Disease 14, 125–130.Google Scholar
Dietz, R, Heide-Iargensen, MP and Harkonen, T (1989) Mass deaths of harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) in Europe. Ambio 18, 258–264.Google Scholar
Domiciano, IG, Domit, C, Broadhurst, MK, Koch, MS and Bracarense, AP (2016) Assessing disease and mortality among small cetaceans stranded at a world heritage site in Southern Brazil. PLoS ONE 11, e0149295.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dong, WW, Xu, Y, Wang, D and Hao, YJ (2006) Mercury concentrations in Yangtze finless porpoises (Neophocaena phocaenoides asiaorientalis) from eastern Dongting Lake, China. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 15, 1–7.Google Scholar
Dove, V, Truijillo, F and Zanre, R (2008) Abundance estimation of the Mekong Irrawaddy dolphin Orcaella brevirostris based on mark and recapture analysis of photo-identified individuals. WWF Cambodia Technical Report.Google Scholar
Dudgeon, D (2010) Requiem for a river: extinctions, climate change and the last of the Yangtze. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystem 20, 127–131.10.1002/aqc.1098CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duignan, PJ, Geraci, JR, Raga, JA and Calzada, N (1992) Pathology of morbillivirus infection in striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba) from Valencia and Murcia. Spain. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research 56, 242–248.Google ScholarPubMed
Duignan, PJ, Van Bressem, MF, Baker, JD, Barbieri, M, Colegrove, KM, De Guise, S, de Swart, RL, Di Guardo, G, Dobson, A, Duprex, WP, Early, G, Fauquier, D, Goldstein, T, Goodman, SJ, Grenfell, B, Groch, KR, Gulland, F, Hall, A, Jensen, BA, Lamy, K, Matassa, K, Mazzariol, S, Morris, SE, Nielsen, O, Rotstein, D, Rowles, TK, Saliki, JT, Siebert, U, Waltzek, T and Wellehan, JF (2014) Phocine distemper virus: current knowledge and future directions. Viruses 6, 5093–5134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunagan, C (2019) Vaccines now used to reduce the risk of extinction in Hawaiian monk seals. Encyclopedia of Puget Sound. Available at https://www.eopugetsound.org/magazine/is/vaccinesGoogle Scholar
Dunn, JL (1990) Bacterial and mycotic diseases of cetaceans and pinipeds. In Dierauf, LA (ed.), CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine: Health Disease and Rehabilitation. Boca Raton: CRC Press, pp. 73–87.Google Scholar
Dunn, J, Buck, J and Robeck, T (2001) Bacterial diseases of cetaceans and pinnipeds. CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicines 2, 309–335.Google Scholar
Eo, KY and Kwon, OD (2011) Two cases of bacterial pneumonia in bottle-nosed dolphins (Tursiops gillii) at the Seoul Zoo, Korea. Pakistan Veterinary Journal 31, 260–262.Google Scholar
Etz, H, Minh, DB, Henics, T, Dryla, A, Winkler, B, Triska, C, Boyd, AP, Söllner, J, Schmidt, W, von Ahsen, U, Buschle, M, Gill, SR, Kolonay, J, Khalak, H, Fraser, CM, von Gabain, A, Nagy, E and Meinke, A (2002) Identification of in vivo expressed vaccine candidate antigens from Staphylococcus aureus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 99, 6573–6578.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fernandez, A, Esperon, F, Herraez, P, deLos, MAE, Clavel, C and Bernabe, A (2008) Morbillivirus and pilot whale deaths, Mediterranean Sea. Emerging Infectious Diseases 14, 792–794.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Floehr, T, Xiao, H, Scholz-Starke, B, Wu, L, Hou, J, Yin, D, Zhang, X, Ji, R, Yuan, X, Ottermanns, R, Roß-Nickoll, M, Schäffer, A and Hollert, H (2013) Solution by dilution? A review on the pollution status of the Yangtze River. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International 20, 6934–6971.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freestone, PP, Sandrini, SM, Haigh, RD and Lyte, M (2008) Microbial endocrinology: how stress influences susceptibility to infection. Trends in Microbiology 16, 55–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gachal, GS, Slater, FM, Qadri, AH, Nisa, Z and Zuhra, (2006a) Environmental impact to the conservation of the Indus River dolphin (Platanista minor). Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences 9, 1496–1503.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gachal, GS, Slater, FM, Nisa, Z and Qadri, AH (2006b) Ecological effect to the status of the Indus dolphin. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences 9, 2117–2121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garlanda, C, Dinarello, CA and Mantovani, A (2013) The interleukin-1 family: back to the future. Immunity 39, 1003–1018.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geraci, JR, St Aubin, DJ, Barker, IK, Webster, RG, Hinshaw, VS, Bean, WJ, Ruhnke, HL, Prescott, JH, Early, G, Baker, AS, Madoff, S and Schooley, RT (1982) Mass mortality of harbor seals: pneumonia associated with influenza A virus. Science (New York, N.Y.) 215, 1129–1131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geraci, JR, St.Aubin, J, Barker, IK, Hinshaw, VS, Webster, RG and Rhunke, HL (1984) Susceptibility of grey (Halichoerus grypus) and harp (Phoca groenlandica) seals to the influenza virus and Mycoplasma of epizootic pneumonia of harbor seals (Phoca vitulina). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 41, 151–156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giebel, J, Meier, J, Binder, A, Flossdorf, J, Poveda, JB, Schmidt, R and Kirchhoff, H (1991) Mycoplasma phocarhinis sp. nov. and Mycoplasma phocacerebrale sp. nov., two new species from harbor seals (Phoca vitulina L.). International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology 41, 39–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giefing, C, Meinke, AL, Hanner, M, Henics, T, Bui, MD, Gelbmann, D, Lundberg, U, Senn, BM, Schunn, M, Habel, A, Henriques-Normark, B, Ortqvist, A, Kalin, M, von Gabain, A and Nagy, E (2008) Discovery of a novel class of highly conserved vaccine antigens using genomic scale antigenic fingerprinting of pneumococcus with human antibodies. Journal of Experimental Medicine 205, 117–131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gonzales-Viera, O, Chavera, A, Yaipén-Llanos, C and Perales-Camacho, R (2011) Histopathological aspects and etiology of pneumonias in stranded marine mammals from Lima, Peru. Brazilian Journal of Veterinary Pathology 4, 23–29.Google Scholar
Grachev, MA, Kumarev, VP, Mamaev, LV, Zorin, VL, Baranova, LV, Denikina, NN, Belikov, SI, Petrov, EA, Kolesnik, VS, Kolesnik, RS, Dorofeev, VM., Beim, AM, Kudelin, VN, Nagieva, FG and Sidorov, VN (1989) Distemper in Baikal seals. Nature 338, 209–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grattarola, C, Giorda, F, Iulini, B, Pautasso, A, Ballardini, M, Zoppi, S, Marsili, L, Peletto, S, Masoero, L, Varello, K, Garibaldi, F, Scaglione, FE, Di Guardo, G, Dondo, A, Goria, M, Serracca, L, Mignone, W and Casalone, C (2018) Occlusive mycotic tracheobronchitis and systemic Alphaherpesvirus coinfection in a free-living striped dolphin Stenella coeruleoalba in Italy. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 127, 137–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gupta, J (2012) Ganga river dolphin in India faces extinction. China dialogue. Available at https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/5208-Ganga-river-dolphin-in-India-faces-extinctionGoogle Scholar
Haydon, DT, Laurenson, MK and Sillero-Zubiri, C (2002) Integrating epidemiology into population viability analysis: managing the risk posed by rabies and canine distemper to the Ethiopian wolf. Conservation Biology 16, 1372–1385.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haydon, DT, Randall, DA, Matthews, L, Knobel, DL, Tallents, LA, Gravenor, MB, Williams, SD, Pollinger, JP, Cleaveland, S, Woolhouse, ME, Sillero-Zubiri, C, Marino, J, Macdonald, DW and Laurenson, MK (2006) Low-coverage vaccination strategies for the conservation of endangered species. Nature 443, 692–695.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hsu, PD, Lander, ES and Zhang, F (2014) Development and applications of CRISPR-Cas9 for genome engineering. Cell 157, 1262–1278.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, DE, Carter, SD, Robinson, I, Clarke, DD and Clarke, CJ (1992) Anti-canine distemper virus antibodies in common and grey seals. Veterinary Record 130, 449–450.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Humerah, BS, Munazza, A and Sheikh, AR (2011) Bacterial and toxic pollutants in lakes of River Indus. Pakistan Journal of Botany 43, 1765–1772.Google Scholar
Iriarte, V and Marmontel, M (2013) River dolphins (Inia geoffrensis, Sotalia fluviatilis) mortality events attributed to artisanal fisheries in the western Brazilian Amazon. Aquatic Mammals 39, 116–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Itakura, C, Nakamura, K, Nakatsuka, J and Goto, M (1979) Distemper infection in lesser pandas due to administration of a canine distemper live vaccine. Nihon Juigaku Zasshi 41, 561–566.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
IUCN (2016) The IUCN red list of threatened species, Version 2016–1. Available at http://www.iucnredlist.org (Accessed 2 August 2016).Google Scholar
Jefferson, TA and Wang, JY (2011) Revision of the taxonomy of finless porpoises (genus Neophocaena): the existence of two species. Journal of Marine Animal Ecology 4, 3–16.Google Scholar
Jepson, PD, Bennett, PM, Deaville, R, Allchin, CR, Baker, JR and Law, RJ (2005) Relationships between polychlorinated biphenyls and health status in harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) stranded in the United Kingdom. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 24, 238–248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jin, YH, Ding, M, Zhai, C, Wang, L, Dong, GH and Shu, WQ (2006) An investigation of the PFOS and PFOA pollution in Three Gorges Reservoir areas of the Yangtze River and surface water of Wuhan areas. Environmental Ecology 15, 486–489.Google Scholar
Johnson, WR, Torralba, M, Fair, PA, Bossart, GD, Nelson, KE and Morris, PJ (2009) Novel diversity of bacterial communities associated with bottlenose dolphin upper respiratory tracts. Environmental Microbiology Reports 1, 555–562.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaushik, DK and Sehgal, D (2008) Developing antibacterial vaccines in genomics and proteomics era. Scandinavian Journal of Immunology 67, 544–552.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirkwood, JK, Bennett, PM, Jepson, PD, Kuiken, T, Simpson, VR and Baker, JR (1997) Entanglement in fishing gear and other causes of death in cetaceans stranded on the coasts of England and Wales. Veterinary Record 141, 94–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knobel, DL, Liebenberg, A and du Toit, JT (2003) Seroconversion in captive African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) following administration of a chicken head bait/SAG-2 oral rabies vaccine combination. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 70, 73–77.Google ScholarPubMed
Lipscomb, TP, Kennedy, S, Moffett, D, Krafft, A, Klaunberg, BA, Lichy, JH, Regan, GT, Worthy, GA and Taubenberger, JK (1996) Morbilliviral epizootic in bottlenose dolphins of the Gulf of Mexico. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 8, 283–290.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lu, WQ, Xie, SH, Zhou, WS, Zhang, SH and Liu, AL (2008) Water pollution and health impact in China: a mini review. Open Environmental Science 2, 1–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lundberg, U, Senn, BM, Schüler, W, Meinke, A and Hanner, M (2013) Identification and characterization of antigens as vaccine candidates against Klebsiella pneumoniae. Human Vaccine and Immunotherapeutic 9, 497–505.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marik, PE, Kiminyo, K and Zaloga, GP (2002) Adrenal insufficiency in critically ill patients with human immunodeficiency virus. Critical Care Medicine 30, 1267–1273.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marketon, JIW and Glaser, R (2008) Stress hormones and immune function. Cellular Immunology 252, 16–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McConnell, BJ (1985). Seals in Orkney. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh Section B 87B, 95–l04.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mei, Z, Huang, SL, Hao, Y, Turvey, ST, Gong, W and Wang, D (2012) Accelerating population decline of Yangtze finless porpoise (Neophocaena asiaeorientalis asiaeorientalis). Biological Conservation 153, 192–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mei, Z, Zhang, X, Huang, SL, Zhao, X, Hao, Y, Zhang, L, Qian, Z, Zheng, J, Wang, K and Wang, D (2014) The Yangtze finless porpoise: on an accelerating path to extinction?. Biological Conservation 172, 117–123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meinke, A, Henics, T, Hanner, M, Minh, DB and Nagy, E (2005) Antigenome technology: a novel approach for the selection of bacterial vaccine candidate antigens. Vaccine 23, 2035–2041.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Minton, G, Smith, BD, Braulik, GT, Kreb, D, Sutaria, D and Reeves, R (2017) Orcaella brevirostris (errata version published in 2018). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017: e.T15419A123790805. Downloaded on 12 August 2018.Google Scholar
Moberg, GP (1985) Animal Stress. New York: Springer-Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morris, PJ, Johnson, WR, Pisani, J, Bossart, GD, Adams, J, Reif, JS and Fair, PA (2011) Isolation of culturable microorganisms from free-ranging bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) from the south-eastern United States. Veterinary Microbiology 148, 440–447.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Müller, B (2007) Endocrine aspects of critical illness. Annales d'endocrinologie 68, 290–298.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muzzi, A, Masignani, V and Rappuoli, R (2007) The pan-genome: towards a knowledge-based discovery of novel targets for vaccines and antibacterials. Drug Discovery Today 12, 429–439.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nabi, G, Hao, Y, Zeng, X, Jinsong, Z, McLaughlin, RW and Wang, D (2017a) Hematologic and biochemical differences between two free ranging Yangtze finless porpoise populations: the implications of habitat. PLoS ONE 12, e0188570.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nabi, G, Hao, Y, Zeng, X and Wang, D (2017b) Assessment of the Yangtze Finless Porpoises (Neophocaena asiaorientalis) through biochemical and hematological parameters. Zoological Studies 56, 31.Google Scholar
Nylen, ES and Müller, B (2004) Endocrine changes in critical illness. Journal of Intensive Care Medicine 19, 67–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Connor, TM, O'Halloran, DJ and Shanahan, F (2000) The stress response and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis: from molecule to melancholia. QJM: Monthly Journal of the Association of Physicians 93, 323–333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Osterhaus, ADME, Groen, J, UytdeHaag, FGCM, Visser, IKG, Van de Bildt, MWG, Bergman, A and Klingeborn, B (1989) Distemper virus in Baikal seals. Nature 338, 209–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pasamontes, A, Aksenov, AA, Schivo, M, Rowles, T, Smith, CR, Schwacke, LH, Wells, RS, Yeates, L, Venn-watson, S and Davis, CE (2017) Noninvasive respiratory metabolite analysis associated with clinical disease in cetaceans: a deepwater horizon oil spill study. Environmental Science and Technology 51, 5737–5746.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raga, JA, Banyard, A, Domingo, M, Corteyn, M, Van Bressem, MF, Fernández, M, Aznar, FJ and Barrett, T (2008) Dolphin morbillivirus epizootic resurgence, Mediterranean Sea. Emerging Infectious Diseases 14, 471–473.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Randall, DA, Williams, SD, Kuzmin, IV, Rupprecht, CE, Tallents, LA, Tefera, Z, Argaw, K, Shiferaw, F, Knobel, DL, Sillero-Zubiri, C and Laurenson, MK (2004) Rabies in endangered Ethiopian wolves. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10, 2214–2217.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rashid, T (2018) At least 10 species in the Ganga face extinction: Ministry reports. Hindustan Times. Available at https://www.hindustantimes.com/environment/at-least-10-species-in-the-ganga-face-extinction-say-ministry-reports/story-ecpjjZPoeiMZofK6oRexEL.htmlGoogle Scholar
Reeb, D, Best, PB, Botha, A, Cloete, KJ, Thornton, M and Mouton, M (2010) Fungi associated with the skin of a southern right whale (Eubalaena australis) from South Africa. Mycology 1, 155–162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reiche, EM, Morimoto, HK and Nunes, SM (2005) Stress and depression-induced immune dysfunction: implications for the development and progression of cancer. International Review of Psychiatry 17, 515–527.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ridgway, SH (1979) Reported causes of death of captive killer whales (Orcinus orca). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 15, 99–104.10.7589/0090-3558-15.1.99CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ritter, L, Solomon, KR and Forget, J (1995) Persistent organic pollutants: an assessment report on: DDT–aldrin–dieldrin–endrin–chlordane, heptachlor–hexachlorobenzene, mirex–toxaphene, polychlorinated biphenyls, dioxins and furans. Canadian Network of Toxicology Centres, Canada. Available at http://www.chem.unep.ch/pops/ritter/en/ritteren.pdfGoogle Scholar
Rolland, RM, Parks, SE, Hunt, KE, Castellote, M, Corkeron, PJ, Nowacek, DP, Wasser, SK and Kraus, SD (2012) Evidence that ship noise increases stress in right whales. Proceedings Biological Sciences 279, 2363–2368.Google ScholarPubMed
Romano, TA, Keogh, MJ, Kelly, C, Feng, P, Berk, L, Schlundt, CE, Carder, DA and Finneran, JJ (2004) Anthropogenic sound and marine mammal health: measures of the nervous and immune systems before and after intense sound exposure. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 61, 1124–1134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rook, GA, Hernandez-Pando, R and Lightman, SL (1994) Hormones, peripherally activated prohormones and regulation of the Th1/Th2 balance. Immunology Today 15, 301–303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenberg, JC and Lysz, K (1980) Suppression of the immune response by steroids. Transplantation 29, 425–428.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rozanova, EI, Alekseev, AY, Abramov, AV, Rassadkin, YN and Shestopalov, AM (2007) Death of the killer whale Orsinus [sic] orca from bacterial pneumonia in 2003. Russian Journal of Marine Biology 33, 321–323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rubio-Guerri, C, Melero, M, Esperón, F, Bellière, EN, Arbelo, M, Crespo, JL, Sierra, E, García-Párraga, D and Sánchez-Vizcaíno, JM (2013) Unusual striped dolphin mass mortality episode related to cetacean morbillivirus in the Spanish Mediterranean Sea. BMC Veterinary Research 9, 106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rupprecht, CE, Hanlon, CA and Slate, D (2004) Oral vaccination of wildlife against rabies: opportunities and challenges in prevention and control. Developments in Biologicals 119, 173–184.Google ScholarPubMed
Ryan, GE, Dove, V, Trujillo, F and Doherty, PF (2011) Irrawaddy Dolphin demography in the Mekong River: an application of mark-resight models. Ecosphere (Washington, D.C) 2, 1–14.Google Scholar
Sandrini, S, Fayez, A, Primrose, F and Hasan, Y (2014) Host stress hormone norepinephrine stimulates pneumococcal growth, biofilm formation and virulence gene expression. BMC Microbiology 14, 180.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schelle, P (2010) River dolphins & people: shared rivers, shared future. WWF International. ISBN: 978-2-940443-09-3.Google Scholar
Schuetz, P and Müller, B (2006) The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in critical illness. Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America 35, 823–838.10.1016/j.ecl.2006.09.013CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seib, KL, Dougan, G and Rappuoli, R (2009) The key role of genomics in modern vaccine and drug design for emerging infectious diseases. PLoS Genetics 5, e1000612.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shao, B, Hu, J, Yang, M, An, W and Tao, S (2005) Nonylphenol and nonylphenol ethoxylates in river water, drinking water, and fish tissues in the area of Chongqing, China. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 48, 467–473.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sharaff, F and Freestone, P (2011) Microbial endocrinology. Central European Journal of Biology 6, 685–694.Google Scholar
Shelley, AA (2014) The effects of stress hormones on immune function may be vital for the adaptive reconfiguration of the immune system during fight-or-flight behavior. Integrative and Comparative Biology 3, 419–426.Google Scholar
Shen, M, Yu, Y, Zheng, GJ, Yu, H, Lam, PK, Feng, J and Wei, Z (2006) Polychlorinated biphenyls and polybrominated diphenyl ethers in surface sediments from the Yangtze River Delta. Marine Pollution Bulletin 52, 1299–1304.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siebert, U, Joiris, C, Holsbeek, L, Benke, H, Failing, K, Frese, K and Petzinger, E (1999) Potential relationship between mercury concentrations and necropsy findings in cetaceans from German waters of the North and Baltic Seas. Marine Pollution Bulletin 38, 285–295.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, BD and Reeves, RR (2000) Report of the workshop on the effects of water development on river cetaceans, 26–28 February 1997, Rajendrapur, Bangladesh. In Reeves, RR, Smith, BD, Kasuya, T (eds), Biology and Conservation of Freshwater Cetaceans in Asia. Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: IUCN Gland.Google Scholar
Smith, BD, Braulik, G, Strindberg, S, Ahmed, B and Mansur, R (2006) Abundance of Irrawaddy dolphins (Orcaella brevirostris) and Ganges river dolphins (Platanista gangetica gangetica) estimated using concurrent counts made by independent teams in waterways of the Sundarbans mangrove forest in Bangladesh. Marine Mammal Science 22, 527–547.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stacey, PJ and Arnold, PW (1999) Orcaella brevirostris. Mammalian Species 616, 1–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
St. Aubin, DJ and Dierauf, LA (2001) Stress in marine mammals. In Dierauf, LA and Gulland, FMD (eds), Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine: Health, Disease and Rehabilitation. Vol. 2. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, pp. 253–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stewart, A (2009) Rabies outbreak in the bale Mountains: vaccinating Ethiopian wolves. Available at http://bornfree.wildlifedirect.org/2009/06/19/rabies-outbreak-in-the-bale-mountains-%E2%80%93-vaccinating-ethiopian-wolves. Accessed March 30, 2013.Google Scholar
Sutaria, D (2009) Species conservation in a complex socio-ecological system: Irrawaddy dolphins, Orcaella brevirostris in Chilika Lagoon, India (PhD dissertation). Townsville (Australia): James Cook University.Google Scholar
Swenshon, M, Lammler, C and Siebert, U (1998) Identification and molecular characterization of b-hemolytic streptococci isolated from harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) of the North and Baltic Seas. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 36, 1902–1906.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
The Nation (2017) Number of Indus River Dolphins increased from 1200 to 1816: WWF Pakistan. Available at https://nation.com.pk/14-Dec-2017/indus-river-dolphinsGoogle Scholar
Tlaskalová-Hogenová, H, Stepánková, R, Hudcovic, T, Tucková, L, Cukrowska, B, Lodinová-Zádníková, R, Kozáková, H, Rossmann, P, Bártová, J, Sokol, D, Funda, DP, Borovská, D, Reháková, Z, Sinkora, J, Hofman, J, Drastich, P and Kokesová, A (2004) Commensal bacteria (normal microflora), mucosal immunity and chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Immunology Letters, 93, 97–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ulrich-Lai, YM and Herman, JP (2009) Neural regulation of endocrine and autonomic stress responses. Nature Reviews Neurosciences 10, 397–409.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Bressem, MF, Raga, JA, Di Guardo, G, Jepson, PD, Duignan, PJ, Siebert, U, Barrett, T, Santos, MC, Moreno, IB, Siciliano, S, Aguilar, A and Van Waerebeek, K (2009) Emerging infectious diseases in cetaceans worldwide and the possible role of environmental stressors. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 86, 143–157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van den Berghe, G, de Zegher, F and Bouillon, R (1998) Clinical review 95: acute and prolonged critical illness as different neuroendocrine paradigms. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 83, 1827–1834.Google ScholarPubMed
Vaughan, K, Del Crew, J, Hermanson, G, Wloch, MK, Riffenburgh, RH, Smith, CR and Van Bonn, WG (2007) A DNA vaccine against dolphin morbillivirus is immunogenic in bottlenose dolphins. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 120, 260–266.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Venn-Watson, S, Daniels, R and Smith, C (2012) Thirty-year retrospective evaluation of pneumonia in a bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncatus population. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 99, 237–242.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Venn-Watson, S, Colegrove, KM, Litz, J, Kinsel, M, Terio, K, Saliki, J, Fire, S, Carmichael, R, Chevis, C, Hatchett, W, Pitchford, J, Tumlin, M, Field, C, Smith, S, Ewing, R, Fauquier, D, Lovewell, G, Whitehead, H, Rotstein, D, McFee, W, Fougeres, E and Rowles, T (2015) Adrenal gland and lung lesions in Gulf of Mexico common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) found dead following the deepwater horizon oil spill. PLoS ONE 10, e0126538.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vergara-Parente, JE, Sidrim, JJC, de Pinho Pessoa, ABG, Parente, CL, Marcondes, MCC, Teixeira, MFDS and Rocha, MFG (2003) Bacterial flora of upper respiratory tract of captive Antillean manatees. Aquatic Mammals 29, 124–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vial, F, Cleaveland, S, Rasmussen, G and Haydon, DT (2006) Development of vaccination strategies for the management of rabies in African wild dogs. Biological Conservation 131, 180–192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Visser, IKG, vd Bildt, MWG, Brugge, HN, Reijnders, PJH, Vedder, EJ, Kuiper, J, de Vries, P, Groen, J, Walvoort, HC and UytdeHaag, FG (1989) Vaccination of harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) against phocid distemper with two different inactivated canine distemper virus (CDV) vaccines. Vaccine 7, 521–526.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wan, X, Richard, WML, Junying, Z, Yujiang, H, Jinsong, Z and Ding, W (2016) Isolation of culturable aerobic bacteria and evidence of Kerstersia gyiorum from the blowhole of captive Yangtze finless porpoises. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 109, 1167–1175.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, D (2009) Population status, threats and conservation of the Yangtze finless porpoise. Chinese Science Bulletin 54, 3473–3484.Google Scholar
Wang, CH and Peng, B (2002) Analysis of micro-organic compound pollution in major city river reaches of the mainstream of the Changjiang River. Yangtze River Supplement 4–9.Google Scholar
Wang, F, Sha, YJ, Xia, XH and Liu, H (2008a) Distribution characteristics of phthalic acid esters in the Wuhan section of the Yangtze River. Environmental Science and Policy 29, 1163–1169.Google Scholar
Wang, J, Frasier, T, Yang, S and White, B (2008b) Detecting recent speciation events: the case of the finless porpoise (genus Neophocaena). Heredity 101,145–155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, D, Turvey, S, Zhao, X and Mei, Z (2013) Neophocaena asiaeorientalis ssp. asiaeorientalis. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 3.1. Available at https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/43205774/45893487Google Scholar
Warner, R (2008) Protecting the diversity of the depths: environmental regulation of bioprospecting and marine scientific research beyond national jurisdiction. Ocean Yearbook 22, 411–443.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weilgar, LS (2007) The impact of ocean noise pollution on marine biodiversity. International Ocean Noise Coalition 1–6.Google Scholar
Whirledge, S and Cidlowski, JA (2010) Glucocorticoids, stress, and fertility. Minerva Endocrinologica 35, 109–125.Google ScholarPubMed
Whittier, AC, Nutter, FB and Stoskopf, MK (2001) Effects of Hand Rearing on the Reproductive Success of Western Lowland Gorillas in North America. Brookfield, IL: Chicago Zoological Society, pp. 232–237.Google Scholar
Wolkow, A, Aisbett, B, Reynolds, J, Ferguson, SA and Main, LC (2015) Relationships between inflammatory cytokine and cortisol responses in firefighters exposed to simulated wildfire suppression work and sleep restriction. Physiological Reports 3, e12604.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Woodroffe, R (2001) Assessing the risks of intervention: immobilization, radiocollaring and vaccination of African wild dogs. Oryx 35, 234–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodroffe, R, Cleaveland, S, Courtenay, O, Laurenson, K and Artois, M (2004) Infectious diseases in the management and conservation of wild canids. In Macdonald, DW and Sillero-Zubiri, C (eds), Biology and Conservation of Wild Canids. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 123–142.Google Scholar
World Bank (2005) Pakistan Country Water Resources Assistance Strategy. Agriculture and rural development unit, South Asia Region. World Bank, p. 144. Available at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/315851468285362706/Pakistan-Country-water-resources-assistance-strategy-water-economy-running-dry.Google Scholar
Wright, AJ, Soto, NA, Baldwin, AL, Bateson, M, Beal, CM, Clark, C, Deak, T, Edwards, E, Ferandez, A, Godinho, A, Hatch, L, Kakuschke, A, Lusseau, D, Martineau, D, Romero, ML, Weilgart, LS, Wintle, BA, Notarbartolo-di-Sciara, G and Martin, V (2007) Do marine mammals experience stress related to anthropogenic noise?. International Journal of Comparative Psychology 20, 274–316.Google Scholar
Wu, J, Huang, J, Han, X, Gao, X, He, F, Jiang, M, Jiang, Z, Primack, RB and Shen, Z (2004) The Three Gorges Dam: an ecological perspective. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2, 241–248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zheng, G, Zhao, Q and Zhang, X (2007) Diagnosis and treatment of pneumonia caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa in a Yangtze finless porpoise (Neophocaena phocaenoides asiaeorientalis). Acta Theriologica Sinica 27, 86–91.Google Scholar