Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-ndw9j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T12:04:50.579Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Pain in Birds

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 January 2023

M J Gentle
M J Gentle*
Affiliation:
Agricultural Food Research Council Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics Research, Edinburgh Research Station, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9PS, UK
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

For the detection and assessment of pain in animals both behavioural and physiological measurements are necessary. Cutaneous receptors which responded to noxious stimulation (nociceptors) have been identified in birds and have been characterized physiologically in the chicken. Following cutaneous nociceptive stimulation the chicken showed cardiovascular and characteristic behavioural changes consistent with those seen in mammals and indicative of pain perception. Following major burn trauma (partial beak amputation) there was behavioural and electrophysiological evidence fora pain-free period lasting several hours. This pain-free period was followed by pain-related behaviour with both anatomical and physiological evidence for long-term chronic pain.

While pain has been assessed following nociceptive stimulation and following trauma the painful consequences of chronic disease have not been investigated Spontaneous degenerative joint disease is widespread in certain strains of intensively reared poultry, and while we do not know what effect joint degeneration has on the joint capsule receptors, recent work has shown in the joint capsule of birds there are similar receptor types to those found in mammals and it seems likely that joint degeneration in birds may be accompanied by painful sensations.

Experimental work has clearly detected painful conditions in birds but the alleviation of pain with analgesic drugs is not possible at present because analgesic agents have not been systematically investigated in birds.

Comparing pain in birds with mammals it is clear that, with regard to the anatomical, physiological and behavioural parameters measured, there are no major differences and therefore the ethical considerations normally afforded to mammals should be extended to birds.

Keywords

animal welfarebeak amputationbirdschickensnociceptionpaintrauma
Type
Research Article
Information
Animal Welfare , Volume 1 , Issue 4 , November 1992 , pp. 235 - 247
Copyright
© 1992 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare

References

Bardo, M T, Hughes, R A 1978 Shock-elicited flight response in chickens as an index of morphine analgesia. Pharmacology Biochemistry & Behavior 9: 147–149CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bayon, A, Koda, L, Battenberg, E, Azad, R, Bloom, F E 1980 Regional distribution of endorphin, met-enkephalin and leu-enkephalin in the pigeon brain. Neuroscience Letters 16: 75–80CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beitel, R E, Dubner, R 1976 Responses of unmyelinated (C) polymodal nociceptors to thermal stimuli applied to monkey’s face. Journal of Neurophysiology 39: 1160–1175Google ScholarPubMed
Bessou, P, Perl, E R 1969 Response to cutaneous sensory units with unmyelinated fibres to noxious stimuli. Journal of Neurophysiology 32: 1025–1043CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blumberg, J, Janig, W 1984 Discharge pattern of afferent fibres from a neuroma. Pain 20: 335–353CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bodnar, R J 1984 Types of stress which induce analgesia. In Tricklebank, M D, Curzon, G (eds) Stress Induced Analgesia, pp 19–32. John Wiley & Sons: ChichesterGoogle Scholar
Breward, J 1985 An Electrophysiological Investigation of the Effects of Beak Trimming in the Domestic Fowl (Gallus gallus domesticus) PhD Thesis, University of Edinburgh: EdinburghGoogle Scholar
Breward, J, Gentle, M J 1985 Neuroma formation and abnormal afferent nerve discharges after partial beak amputation (beak trimming) in poultry. Experientia 41: 1132–1134CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carli, G 1974 Blood pressure and heart rate in the rabbit during animal hypnosis. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 37: 231–237CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Csillag, A, Bourne, R C, Kalman, M, Boxer, M I, Stewart, M G 1989 [3H] Naloxone binding in the brain of the domestic chick (Gallus domesticus) determined by in vitro quantitative autoradiography. Brain Research 479: 391–396CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Devor, M, Bernstein, J J 1982 Abnormal impulse generation in neuromas: electrophysiology and ultrastructure. In Culp, W J, Ochoa, J (eds) Abnormal Nerves and Muscles as Impulse Generators, pp 363–380. Oxford University Press: OxfordGoogle Scholar
Duff, SRI, Hocking, P M 1986 Chronic orthopaedic disease in adult male broiler breeding fowls. Research in Veterinary Science 42: 340–348CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duncan, I J H, Slee, G S, Seawright, E, Breward, J 1989 Behavioural consequences of partial beak amputation (beak trimming) in poultry. British Poultry Science 30: 479–489CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duncan, I J H, Beatty, E R, Hocking, P M, Duff, SRI 1991 Assessment of pain associated with degenerative hip disorders in adult male turkeys. Research in Veterinary Science 50: 200–203CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eskeland, B 1981 Effects of beak trimming. In Sorensen, L Y (ed) First European Symposium on Poultry Welfare, pp 193–200. Danish Branch of the World Poultry Science Association: CopenhagenGoogle Scholar
Fan, S G, Shutt, A J, Vogt, M 1981 The importance of 5-hydroxytryptamine turnover for the analgesic effect of morphine in the chicken. Neuroscience 6: 2223–2227CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gentle, M J 1986 Neuroma formation following partial beak amputation (beak trimming) in the chicken. Research in Veterinary Science 41: 383–385CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gentle, M J 1989 Cutaneous sensory afferente recorded from the nervus intra-mandibularis of Gallus gallus var domesticus. Journal of Comparative Physiology A 164: 763–774Google Scholar
Gentle, M J 1991 The acute effects of amputation on peripheral trigeminal afferents in Gallus gallus var domesticus. Pain 46: 97–103Google ScholarPubMed
Gentle, M J 1992 Ankle joint (Artc. intertarsalis) receptors in the domestic fowl. Neuroscience 49: 991–1000CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gentle, M J, Hill, F L 1987 Oral lesions in the chicken: behavioral responses following nociceptive stimulation. Physiology and Behavior 40: 781–783CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gentle, M J, Hunter, L N 1990 Physiological and behavioural responses associated with feather removal in Gallus gallus var domesticus. Research in Veterinary Science 50: 95–101Google Scholar
Gentle, M J, Jones, R B, Woolley, S C 1989 Physiological changes during tonic immobility in Gallus gallus var domesticus. Physiology and Behavior 46: 843–847Google Scholar
Gentle, M J, Hunter, L N, Waddington, D 1991 The onset of pain related behaviours following partial beak amputation in the chicken. Neuroscience Letters 128: 113–116CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gentle, M J, Waddington, D, Hunter, L N, Jones, R B 1990 Behavioural evidence for persistent pain following partial beak amputation in chickens. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 27: 149–157Google Scholar
Goodman, L S, Gilman, A 1970 The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 4th edition. Collier-Macmillan Ltd: LondonGoogle Scholar
Gottschaldt, K M, Fruhstorfer, H, Schmidt, W, Kraft, I 1982 Thermosensitivity and its possible fine-structural basis in mechanoreceptors in the beak skin of geese. Journal of Comparative Neurology 205: 219–245CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Govrin-Lippmann, R, Devor, M 1978 Ongoing activity in severed nerves: source and variation with time. Brain Research 159: 406–410CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregory, J E 1973 An electrophysiological investigation of the receptor apparatus in the duck’s bill. Journal of Physiology 229: 151–164CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holloway, J A, Trouth, C O, Weight, L E, Keyser, G F 1980 Cutaneous receptive field characteristics of primary afferents and dorsal horn cells in the avian (Gallus domesticus). Experimental Neurology 68: 477–488CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hughes, R A 1990 Strain-dependent morphine-induced analgesic and hyperalgesic effects on thermal nociception in domestic fowl (Gallus gallus). Behavioral Neuroscience 104: 619–624CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hutson, P H, Curzon, G, Tricklebank, M D 1984 Anti-nociception induced by brief foot-shock: characterisation and roles of 5-hydroxytryptamine and dopamine. In Tricklebank, M D, Curzon, G (eds) Stress Induced Analgesia, pp 135–164. John Wiley & Sons: ChichesterGoogle Scholar
Iggo, A 1959 Cutaneous heat and cold receptors with slowly conducting (C) afferent fibres. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology 44: 362–370CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iggo, A, Steedman, W M, Fleetwood-Walker, S 1985 Spinal processing: anatomy and physiology of spinal nociceptive mechanisms. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society London B 308: 235–252Google ScholarPubMed
IASP 1979 International Association for the Study of Pain, sub-committee on taxonomy. Pain terms: a list with definitions and notes on usage. Pain 6: 249–252Google Scholar
Kenshalo, D R Jr, Isensee, O 1983 Effects of noxious stimuli on primate SI cortical neurons. In Bonica, J J, Lindblom, U, Iggo, A (eds) Advances in Pain Research and Therapy, Vol 5, pp 139–145. Raven Press: New YorkGoogle Scholar
Klemm, W R 1966 Electroencephalographic-behavioural dissociations during animal hypnosis. Electroencephalography Clinical Neurophysiology 21: 365–372CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kruger, L, Rodin, B E 1983 Peripheral mechanisms involved in pain. In Kitchell, R L, Erickson, H E (eds) Animal Pain. Perception and Alleviation, pp 1–26. Williams and Watkins: LondonGoogle Scholar
LaMotte, R H 1984 Cutaneous nociceptors and pain sensation in normal and hyperalgesic skin. In Kruger, L, Liebeskind, J C (eds) Advances in Pain Research and Therapy, Vol 6, pp 69–82. Raven Press: New YorkGoogle Scholar
Necker, R 1983 Somatosensory system. In Abs, M (ed) Physiology and Behaviour of the Pigeon, pp 169–192. Academic Press: LondonGoogle Scholar
Necker, R, Reiner, B 1980 Temperature-sensitive mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors and heat nociceptors in the feathered skin of pigeons. Journal of Comparative Physiology A 135: 201–207CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ookawa, T 1972 Polygraphic recordings during adult hen hypnosis. Poultry Science 51: 853–958CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perl, E R 1984 Characterisation of nociceptors and their activation of neurons in the superficial dorsal horn: first steps for the sensation of pain. In Kruger, L, Liebeskind, J C (eds) Advances in Pain Research and Therapy, Vol 6, pp 23–51. Raven Press: New YorkGoogle Scholar
Reiner, A, Davis, B M, Brecha, N C, Karten, H J 1984 The distribution of enkephalin-like immunoreactivity in the telencephalon of the adult and developing domestic chicken. Journal of Comparative Neurology 228: 245–262CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reynolds, J E F 1989 Martindale. The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 29th edition. The Pharmaceutical Press: LondonGoogle Scholar
Robertson, K E, Cross, P J, Terry, J C 1985 The crucial first days. American Journal of Nursing 85: 30–47CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roumy, M, Leitner, L M 1973 Activites afferentes provenant de bec superieur de la poule domestique. Compte Rendu de l’Academie de Sciences Paris 277. 1791–1794Google Scholar
Scadding, J W 1981 Development of ongoing activity, mechanosensitivity, and adrenaline sensitivity in severed peripheral axons. Experimental Neurology 73: 345–364CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, C 1961 Effects of morphine-like drugs in chicks. Nature 191: 607–608CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seltzer, Z, Paran, Y, Elson, A, Ginzburg, R 1991 Neuropathic pain behaviour in rats depends on the afferent input from nerve-end neuroma including histamine-sensitive C-Fibres. Neuroscience Letters 128: 203–206CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sherman, R A, Sherman, C J, Gall, N G 1980 A survey of current phantom limb pain treatment in the United States. Pain 8: 85–100CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silva, E E, Estable, C, Segundo, J P 1959 Further observations on animal hypnosis. Archives Italiennes de Biologie 97: 167–177Google Scholar
Stein, J M, Stein, E D 1983 Pain management. In Bernstein, N R, Robson, M C (eds) Comprehensive Approaches to the Burned Person, pp 136–146. Medical Examination Publishing: New YorkGoogle Scholar
Szolcsanyi, J, Sann, H, Pierau, F K 1986 Nociception in pigeons is not impaired by capsaicin. Pain 27: 247–260CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tobler, I, Borbely, A A 1988 Sleep and EEG spectra in pigeon (Columba livia) under baseline conditions and after sleep deprivation. Journal of Comparative Physiology A 163: 729–738CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Torebjork, H E, LaMotte, R H, Robinson, C J 1984 Peripheral neural correlates of magnitude of cutaneous pain and hyperalgesia: simultaneous recordings in humans of pain and evoked responses in nociceptors with C-fibres. Journal of Neurophysiology 51: 325–339CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Luitelaar, E L J M, Van Der Grinten, CPM, Blokhuis, H J, Coenen, A M L 1987 Sleep in the domestic hen (Gallus domesticus). Physiology and Behavior 41: 409–414CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wall, P D 1979 On the relation of injury to pain. Pain 6: 253–264CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wall, P D 1981 On the origin of pain associated with amputation. In Siegfried, J, Zimmermann, M (eds) Phantom and Stump Pain, pp 2–14. Springer-Verlag: BerlinCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wall, P D, Gutnick, M 1974 Properties of afferent nerve impulses originating from a neuroma. Nature 248: 740–743CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wall, P D, McMahon, S B 1985 Microneurography and its relation to perceived sensation. A critical review. Pain 21: 209–229CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woolley, S C, Gentle, M J 1987 Physiological and behavioural responses in the hen (Gallus domesticus) to nociceptive stimulation. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 88A: 27–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zimmermann, M 1979 Peripheral and central nervous mechanisms of nociception, pain, and pain therapy: facts and hypotheses. In Bonica, J J, Liebeskind, J C, Albe-Fessard, D J (eds) Advances in Pain Research and Therapy, Vol 3, pp 3–32. Raven Press: New YorkGoogle Scholar
Zimmermann, M 1986 Behavioural investigations of pain in animals. In Duncan, I J H, Molony, V (eds) Assessing Pain in Farm Animals, pp 30–35. Commission of the European Communities: LuxembourgGoogle Scholar