Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-fscjk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T16:10:21.726Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Post-natal development of EEG responses to noxious stimulation in pigs (Sus scrofa) aged 1-15 days

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2023

NJ Kells ,
NJ Beausoleil ,
MA Sutherland  and
CB Johnson
NJ Kells*
Affiliation:
Animal Welfare Science and Bioethics Centre, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Private Bag 11222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand
NJ Beausoleil
Affiliation:
Animal Welfare Science and Bioethics Centre, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Private Bag 11222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand
MA Sutherland
Affiliation:
AgResearch Ltd, Ruakura Research Centre, Hamilton 3216, New Zealand
CB Johnson
Affiliation:
Animal Welfare Science and Bioethics Centre, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Private Bag 11222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand
*
* Contact for correspondence: N.J.Kells@massey.ac.nz
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

This study examined electroencephalographic (EEG) indices of acute nociception in pigs (Sus scrofa) aged 1, 5, 7, 10, 12 and 15 days, post-natal. Ten pigs per age were anaesthetised with halothane in oxygen and maintained at a light plane of anaesthesia. EEG was recorded bilaterally using a five-electrode montage. Following a 10-min baseline period, tails were docked using side-cutter pliers and recording continued for a further 5 min. Changes in the median frequency (F50), 95% spectral edge frequency (F95) and total power (PTOT) of the EEG were used to assess nociception. Tail-docking at one day of age induced no significant changes in the EEG spectrum. A typical nociceptive response, characterised by an increase in F50 and decrease in PTOT was evident at ten days of age, with five and seven day old pigs exhibiting responses in either F50 or PTOT only. Pooling of data into ≤ 7 days of age and > 7 days of age revealed F50 was higher overall in the older group. Whilst PTOT decreased after docking in both groups, this response was larger and more prolonged in the older group. F95 increased after docking in the older pigs only. Overall, these data provide evidence of an increase in cortical responsiveness to noxious stimulation with increasing post-natal age, suggesting there may be qualitative differences in pain perception between age groups. Further, the data provide some support for current recommendations that tail-docking and other painful husbandry procedures be performed within seven days of birth in order to minimise their impact on animal welfare.

Keywords

animal welfareEEGnociceptionpainpigtail-docking
Type
Articles
Information
Animal Welfare , Volume 28 , Issue 3 , August 2019 , pp. 317 - 329
Copyright
© 2019 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare

References

Anonymous 2018 Animal Welfare (Pigs) Code of Welfare 2018. National Animal Welfare Advisory Committee: Wellington, New ZealandGoogle Scholar
Bromm, B 1984 Pain Measurement in Man: Neurophysiological Correlates of Pain. Elsevier: New York, USAGoogle Scholar
Chapman, CR, Casey, KL, Dubner, R, Foley, KM, Gracely, RH and Reading, AE 1985 Pain measurement: an overview. Pain 22: 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3959(85)90145-9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, ACN, Dworkin, SF, Haug, J and Gehrig, J 1989 Topographic brain measures of human pain and pain responsivity. Pain 37: 129–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3959(89)90125-5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) 2008 Model Code of Practise for the Welfare of Animals: Pigs. CSIRO: Collingwood, VIC, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Council of the European Union 2008 Council Directive 2008/120/EC Laying down minimum standards for the protection of pigs. Official Journal of the European Union L47: 5–13Google Scholar
Devonshire, IM, Greenspon, CM and Hathway, GJ 2015 Developmental alterations in noxious-evoked EEG activity recorded from rat primary somatosensory cortex. Neuroscience 305: 343–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.08.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickerson, JWT and Dobbing, J 1967 Prenatal and postnatal growth and development of the central nervous system of the pig. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 166:384–395. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1967.0002Google ScholarPubMed
Flecknell, P 2008 Analgesia from a veterinary perspective. British Journal of Anaesthesia 101: 121–124. https://doi.org/10.1093/bja/aen087CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gibson, TJ, Johnson, CB, Stafford, KJ, Mitchinson, SL and Mellor, DJ 2007 Validation of the acute electroencephalographic responses of calves to noxious stimulus with scoop dehorning. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 55: 152–157. https://doi.org/10.1080/00480169.2007.36760CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregory, G, Eger, E and Munson, E 1969 The relationship between age and halothane requirement in man. Anesthesiology 30:488–491. https://doi.org/10.1097/00000542-196905000-00003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grunau, RE 2013 Neonatal pain in very preterm infants: long-term effects on brain, neurodevelopment and pain reactivity. Rambam Maimonides Medical Journal 4: e0025. https://doi.org/10.5041/RMMJ.10132Google ScholarPubMed
Haga, H and Ranheim, B 2005 Castration of piglets: the anal-gesic effects of intratesticular and intrafunicular lidocaine injection. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia 32: 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2995.2004.00225.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, CB, Gibson, TJ, Stafford, KJ and Mellor, DJ 2012 Pain perception at slaughter. Animal Welfare 21: 113–122. https://doi.org/10.7120/096272812X13353700593888CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, CB, Stafford, KJ, Sylvester, S, Ward, R, Mitchinson, S and Mellor, DJ 2005a Effects of age on electroencephalograph-ic responses to castration in lambs anaesthetised using halothane in oxygen. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 53: 433–437. https://doi.org/10.1080/00480169.2005.36589CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, CB, Sylvester, SP, Stafford, KJ, Mitchinson, SL, Ward, RN and Mellor, DJ 2009 Effects of age on the electroen-cephalographic response to castration in lambs anaesthetized with halothane in oxygen from birth to 6 weeks old. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia 36: 273–279. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2995.2009.00448.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, CB, Wilson, P, Woodbury, M and Caulkett, N 2005b Comparison of analgesic techniques for antler removal in halothane-anaesthetised red deer (Cervus elaphus): electroen-cephalographic responses. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia 32:61–71. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2995.2005.00228.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kells, NJ, Beausoleil, NJ, Chambers, JP, Sutherland, MA, Morrison, RS and Johnson, CB 2017b Electroencephalographic responses of anaesthetised pigs (Sus scrofa) to tail docking using clippers or cautery iron, performed at two or twenty days of age. Veterinary Anaesthesia & Analgesia 44: 1156–1165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaa.2017.02.003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kells, NJ, Beausoleil, NJ, Sutherland, MA, Morrison, RS and Johnson, CB 2017a Electroencephalographic assessment of oral meloxicam, topical anaesthetic cream and cautery iron for miti-gating acute pain in pigs (Sus scrofa) undergoing tail docking. Veterinary Anaesthesia & Analgesia 44: 1166–1174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaa.2017.02.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kongara, K, Chambers, JP and Johnson, CB 2010 Electroencephalographic responses of tramadol, parecoxib and morphine to acute noxious electrical stimulation in anaesthetised dogs. Research in Veterinary Science 88: 127–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2009.05.012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kongara, K, Johnson, L, Kells, N, Johnson, C, Dukkipati, V and Mitchinson, SL 2014 Alteration of electroencephalographic responses to castration in cats by administration of opioids. Journal of Veterinary Science 1: 38–42. https://doi.org/10.5176/2345-7880_1.1.5Google Scholar
Livingston, A and Chambers, P 2000 Physiology of pain. In: Flecknell, P and Waterman-Pearson, AE (eds) Pain Management in Animals. WB Saunders: London, UK. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-7020-1767-4.50005-9Google Scholar
Marchant-Forde, JN, Lay, DC, McMunn, KA, Cheng, HW, Pajor, EA and Marchant-Forde, RM 2009 Postnatal piglet hus-bandry practices and well-being: The effects of alternative techniques delivered separately. Journal of Animal Science 87: 1479–1492. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2008-1080CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCracken, L, Waran, N, Mitchinson, SL and Johnson, CB 2010 Effect of age at castration on behavioural response to sub-sequent tail docking in lambs. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia 37: 375–381. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2995.2010.00547.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
McIlhone, A 2011 Some characteristics of brain electrical activity in the domestic chicken. PhD Thesis, Massey University, Palmerston North, New ZealandGoogle Scholar
Mellor, DJ and Diesch, TJ 2006 Onset of sentience: The poten-tial for suffering in fetal and newborn farm animals. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 100: 48–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applan-im.2006.04.012CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mellor, DJ, Diesch, TJ, Gunn, AJ and Bennet, L 2005 The importance of ‘awareness’ for understanding fetal pain. Brain Research Reviews 49: 455–471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres-rev.2005.01.006CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murrell, J, Mitchinson, SL, Waters, D and Johnson, CB 2007 Comparative effect of thermal, mechanical, and electrical noxious stimuli on the electroencephalogram of the rat. British Journal of Anaesthesia 98: 366–371. https://doi.org/10.1093/bja/ael377CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murrell, JC and Johnson, CB 2006 Neurophysiological techniques to assess pain in animals. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapy 29: 325–335. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2885.2006.00758.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murrell, JC, Johnson, CB, White, K, Taylor, P, Haberham, Z and Waterman-Pearson, A 2003 Changes in the EEG during castration in horses and ponies anaesthetised with halothane. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia 30: 138–146. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1467-2995.2003.00138.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murrell, JC, Mitchinson, SL, Lesperance, L, Sivakumaran, S and Johnson, CB 2010 Electroencephalography during ovario-hysterectomy in rats anaesthetized with halothane. Veterinary Anaesthesia & Analgesia 37: 14–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2995.2009.00504.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murrell, JC, White, K, Johnson, CB, Taylor, P, Doherty, T and Waterman-Pearson, A 2005 Investigation of the EEG effects of intravenous lidocaine during halothane anaesthesia in ponies. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia 32: 212–221. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2995.2005.00201.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nguyen, PN, Billiards, SS, Walker, DW and Hirst, JJ 2003 Changes in 5-alpha-pregnane steroids and neurosteroidogenic enzyme expression in the perinatal sheep. Pediatric Research 53:956–964. https://doi.org/10.1203/01.PDR.0000064905.64688.10CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nickalls, RWD and Mapleson, WW 2003 Age-related iso-MAC charts for isoflurane, sevoflurane and desflurane in man. British Journal of Anaesthesia 91: 170–174. https://doi.org/10.1093/bja/aeg132CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Noonan, GJ, Rand, JS, Priest, J, Ainscow, J and Blackshaw, JK 1994 Behavioural observations of piglets undergoing tail docking, teeth clipping and ear notching. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 39: 201–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-1591(94)90156-2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ong, R, Morris, J, O’Dwyer, J, Barnett, J, Hensworth, P and Clarke, I 1997 Behavioural and EEG changes in sheep in response to painful acute electrical stimuli. Australian Veterinary Journal 75:189–193. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-0813.1997.tb10064.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oshima, E, Shingu, K and Mori, K 1981 EEG activity during halothane anaesthesia in man. British Journal of Anaesthesia 53: 65–72. https://doi.org/10.1093/bja/53.1.65CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Otto, KA 2008 EEG power spectrum analysis for monitoring depth of anaesthesia during experimental surgery. Laboratory Animals 42: 45–61. https://doi.org/10.1258/la.2007.006025CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Otto, KA and Mally, P 2003 Noxious stimulation during orthopaedic surgery results in EEG arousal or paradoxical arous-al reaction in isoflurane-anaesthetised sheep. Research in Veterinary Science 75: 103–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-5288(03)00077-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pogatzki-Zahn, EM, Segelcke, D and Schug, SA 2017 Postoperative pain: from mechanisms to treatment. PAIN Reports 2: e588. https://doi.org/10.1097/PR9.0000000000000588CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prunier, A, Mounier, A and Hay, M 2005 Effects of castration, tooth resection, or tail docking on plasma metabolites and stress hormones in young pigs. Journal of Animal Science 83: 216–222. https://doi.org/10.2527/2005.831216xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shankle, WR, Romney, AK, Landing, BH and Hara, J 1998 Developmental patterns in the cytoarchitecture of the human cerebral cortex from birth to 6 years examined by correspon-dence analysis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 95:4023–4028. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.95.7.4023CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sutherland, MA, Bryer, PJ, Krebs, N and McGlone, JJ 2008 Tail docking in pigs: acute physiological and behavioural respons-es. Animal 2: 292–297. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731107001450CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taddio, A, Katz, J, Ilersich, AL and Koren, G 1997 Effect of neonatal circumcision on pain response during subsequent rou-tine vaccination. The Lancet 349: 599–603. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(96)10316-0CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woolf, CJ 2011 Central sensitization: implications for the diagno-sis and treatment of pain. Pain 152: S2–S15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pain.2010.09.030CrossRefGoogle Scholar