Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-mlc7c Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T11:52:16.814Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The welfare and suitability of parrots as companion animals: a review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 January 2023

M Engebretson
M Engebretson*
Affiliation:
Animal Protection Institute, 1122 S Street, Sacramento, CA 95814, USA
*
email: monica@api4animals.org
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

In recent years there has been an increased interest in studies related to the welfare of avian species commonly kept as companion animals, specifically those in the order Psittaciformes, commonly referred to as ‘parrots’. During this time the biology and behaviour of wild parrots has also become better understood, aiding the assessment of welfare in captive environments. The impact of the pet trade on wild parrot populations has also become clear. This order now has more globally threatened species than almost any other major group of birds. Many significant aspects of parrot behaviour in the wild, such as flocking, social interaction with conspecifics, foraging on a variety of foods and flight, are denied to varying degrees to parrots kept as companion animals. Captive parrots show high levels of stereotypy, suggesting poor welfare. Welfare may be improved by appropriate environmental enrichment and changes in the social environment of captive parrots kept as companion animals; however, such changes require that caretakers have sufficient knowledge, resources and motivation to accommodate such conditions. The concept of companion animal suitability is an important consideration when developing regulations or policy aimed at improving the welfare of animals kept as companions. Although individual exceptions exist and the level of suitability may vary depending on species, in general, their presence in the pet trade has resulted in serious animal welfare and conservation challenges for parrots, indicating that these animals may be unsuitable as human companions.

Keywords

animal welfarecaptive parrotscaptive wildlifecompanion animalspet ownershippet trade
Type
Research Article
Information
Animal Welfare , Volume 15 , Issue 3 , August 2006 , pp. 263 - 276
Copyright
© 2006 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare

References

Aengus, WL and Millam, JR 1999 Taming parent-reared orange-winged Amazon parrots by neonatal handling. Zoo Biology 18: 177–1873.0.CO;2-D>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Altman, RB 1998 Twenty years of progress in avian anaesthesia and surgery. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 21(8): 1233–1235Google Scholar
American Veterinary Medical Association 2002 U.S. Pet Ownership and Demographics Sourcebook (2002 Edition). American Veterinary Medical Association Membership and Field Services: Illinois, USAGoogle Scholar
Animal Protection Institute 2005 Current law and suggested approaches to improving captive bird welfare. http://www.api4animals.org/b4a2_birdwelfare.phpGoogle Scholar
Association of Avian Veterinarians (AAV) Position on the sale of unweaned birds. http://www.aav.org/Unweaned.htm (accessed 5 May 2006)Google Scholar
Athan, MS 1993 Guide to a Well-Behaved Parrot. Barrons Educational Series: New York, USAGoogle Scholar
Beissinger, SR 2001 Trade of live wild birds: potential, principals and practices of sustainable use. In: Reynolds, J, Mace, GM, Redford, KH and Robinson, JG (eds) Conservation of Exploited Species pp 182–202. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UKGoogle Scholar
Birchall, A 1990 Who's a clever parrot, then? New Scientist, February 24: 38–43Google Scholar
Blanchard, S 1999 Common parrot behavioural myths and why they are myths. http://www.companionparrot.com/Common%20Parrot%20Behaviorial%20Myths.htm (accessed 5 May 2006)Google Scholar
Blanchard, S 2001 The poultrification of parrots. http://www.companionparrot.com/Poultrification%20of%20Parrots.htm (accessed 5 May 2006)Google Scholar
Blood, DC and Studdert, VP 1988 Bailleire's Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary p 653. Bailliere Tindall: London, UKGoogle Scholar
Brodnick, PS, Thayer, BA and Ritchie, W 1994 Feather picking disorder and trichotollomania: an avian model of human psychopathology. Journal of Behaviour Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry. 25: 189–196CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broom, DM 1996 Animal welfare defined in terms of attempts to cope with the environment. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section A: Animal Science, Suppl 27: 22–28Google Scholar
Bucher, EH, Carlos, ST, Miglietta, S and Zaccagnini, MA 1992 Status and management of the blue-fronted Amazon parrot in Argentina. PsittaScene 4(2): 3–6Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) 1998 Compendium of measures to control Chlamydia psittaci infection among humans (psittacosis) and pet birds (avian chlamydiosis). 47(RR10). http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00053877.htm (accessed 5 May 2006)Google Scholar
Clark, FD 2003 Exotic poultry diseases: an update. http://www.thepoultrysite.com/FeaturedArticle/FATopic.asp?AREA=HealthAndWelfare&Display=98 (accessed 5 May 2006)Google Scholar
Clubb, SL 1992 The role of private aviculture in the conservation of Neotropical psittacines. In: Beissinger, SR and Snyder, NFR (eds) New World Parrots in Crisis: Solutions from Conservation Biology pp 117–131. Smithsonian Institute Press: Washington DC, USAGoogle Scholar
Clubb, SL 1998 Captive management of birds for a lifetime. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 21(8): 1243–1245Google Scholar
Collar, NJ and Juniper, AT 1992 Dimensions and causes of the parrot conservation crisis. In: Beissinger, SR and Snyder, NFR (eds) New World Parrots in Crisis: Solutions from Conservation Biology pp 1–24. Smithsonian Institute Press: Washington DC, USAGoogle Scholar
Collette, JC, Millam, JR, Klasing, KC and Wakenell, PS 2000 Neonatal handling of Amazon parrots alters the stress response and immune function. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 66: 335–349CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Croke, V 1997 The Modern Ark: The Story of Zoos: Past, Present and Future. Bard/Avon Books: New York, USAGoogle Scholar
Davis, C 1998 Appreciating avian intelligence: the importance of a proper domestic environment. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 212(8): 1220–1222Google ScholarPubMed
Derrickson, SR and Snyder, NFR 1992 Potentials and limits of captive breeding in parrot conservation. In: Beissinger, SR and Snyder, NFR (eds) New World Parrots in Crisis: Solutions from Conservation Biology pp 133–163. Smithsonian Institute Press: Washington DC, USAGoogle Scholar
Desborough, L 1994 Breeder news and views. Bird Breeder 66(10): 64–65Google Scholar
Desborough, L 1996 Breeder news and views. Bird Breeder 68(4): 6–7Google Scholar
Donoghue, S 1997 Nutrition of companion birds and reptiles. Proceedings from the 21st Annual Waltham–OSU Symposium for the Treatment of Small Animal Diseases: Exotics pp 27–33. College of Veterinary Medicine Ohio State University: Ohio, USAGoogle Scholar
Duncan, IJH 1996 Animal welfare defined in terms of feelings. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section A: Animal Science, Suppl 27: 29–35Google Scholar
Eifert, J, Tarpley, HL and Latimer, KS 2003 Study case — aspergillosis in a blue-fronted Amazon parrot (Amazona aestiva). http://www.vet.uga.edu/vpp/clerk/eifert/ (accessed 5 May 2006)Google Scholar
Engebretson, M 2004 For the birds. Animal Issues 35(1): 14–15Google Scholar
Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC) 1992 FAWC updates the five freedoms. The Veterinary Record 131: 357Google Scholar
Field, DA and Thomas, R 2000 Environmental enrichment for psittacines at Edinburgh Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook 37: 232–237CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisk, LH and Crabtree, DM 1974 Black-hooded parakeet: new feral breeding species in California? American Birds 28: 181–195Google Scholar
Flammer, K 1997 Update on avian chlamydiosis In: Proceedings from the 21st Annual Waltham–OSU Symposium for the Treatment of Small Animal Diseases: Exotics pp 15–18. College of Veterinary Medicine Ohio State University: Ohio, USAGoogle Scholar
Flammer, K 1998 Twenty years of progress in pet bird research. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 21(8): 1231–1233Google Scholar
Forbes, NA and Glendell, G 1999 Wing clipping in psittacine birds. The Veterinary Record 144: 299 (letter)Google ScholarPubMed
Ford, MJ 2002 Selection in captivity during supportive breeding may reduce fitness in the wild. Conservation Biology 16(3): 815–825CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forshaw, JM 1973 Parrots of the World. Doubleday: New York, USA. Cited in Schuppli CA and Fraser D 2000 A framework for assessing the suitability of different species as companion animals. Animal Welfare 9: 359–372Google Scholar
Fraser, AF and Broom, DM 1990 Farm Animal Behaviour and Welfare, 3rd Edition. Bailliere Tindall: London, UKGoogle Scholar
Garner, JP, Mason, GJ and Smith, R 2003a Stereotypic route-tracing in experimentally caged songbirds correlates with general behavioural disinhibition. Animal Behaviour 66: 771–827CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garner, JP, Meehan, CL and Mench, JA 2003b Stereotypies in caged parrots, schizophrenia and autism: evidence for a common mechanism. Behavioural Brain Research 145: 125–134CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilardi, J 2001 Breeding parrots for conservation: an idea whose time has come, or come and gone? PsittaScene 13 (2): 12-13Google Scholar
Gilardi, JD and Munn, CA 1998 Patterns of activity, flocking, and habitat use in parrots or the Peruvian Amazon. The Condor 100: 641–653CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gill, FB 1990 Ornithology, 2nd Edition. WH Freeman and Company: New York, USAGoogle Scholar
Graham, DL 1998 Pet birds: historical and modern perspectives on the keeper and the kept. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 212(8): 1216–1219Google ScholarPubMed
Harcourt-Brown, N 2003 Incidence of juvenile osteodystrophy in hand-reared grey parrots (Pissacus e. erithacus). The Veterinary Record 152: 438–439CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harcourt-Brown, N 2004 Development of the skeleton and feathers of dusky parrots (Pinous fuscus) in relation to their behaviour. The Veterinary Record 154: 42–48CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harris, DJ 1997 Psittacine pediatric husbandry. In: Proceedings from the 21st Annual Waltham–OSU Symposium for the Treatment of Small Animal Diseases: Exotics pp 23–24. College of Veterinary Medicine Ohio State University: Ohio, USAGoogle Scholar
Harrison, GJ 1998 Twenty years of progress in pet bird nutrition. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 212(8): 1226-1230Google Scholar
Held, S, Mendl, M, Devereux, C and Byrne, RW 2001 Studies in social cognition: from primates to pigs. Animal Welfare 10, Suppl: S209-S217CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hesterman, H, Gregroy, NG and Boardman, WSJ 2001 Deflighting procedures and their welfare implication in captive birds. Animal Welfare 10: 405–419CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holmes, JS and Stroud, DA 1995 Naturalised birds: feral, exotic, introduced, or alien? British Birds 88: 602–603 (letter)Google Scholar
Jackson, J 2003 Pandora's birds. Birder's World, October 2003: 55–59Google Scholar
Kearns, KS 2003 Avian aspergillosis. Recent advances in avian infectious diseases. International Veterinary Information Service: Ithaca NY, USA. http://www.ivis.org/advances/Kearns/kearns2/ivis.pdf (accessed 5 May 2006)Google Scholar
Keiper, RR 1969 Causal factors of stereotypies in caged birds. Animal Behaviour 17: 114–119CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kid, AH and Kid, RM 1998 Problems and benefits of bird ownership. Psychological Reports 83: 131–138CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, CE 1993 Environmental enrichment: is it for the birds? Zoo Biology 12: 509–512CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, CE 2000 Situation-dependant management of large parrots by manipulation of the social environment. International Zoo Yearbook 37: 238–244CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knights, P and Currey, D 1990 Will Europe ban wild-bird imports? Defenders Nov/Dec: 20-25Google Scholar
Laughlin, CA and Dowrick, PW 1987 Psychological needs filled by avian companions. Anthrozoos 6(3): 166–171Google Scholar
Lightfoot, TL 2002 Avian behaviour. Hartz Exotic Health Newsletter 1: 4Google Scholar
Low, R 2000 Over-production of parrots: giant implications for parrot welfare. PsittaScene 12(3): 12–13Google Scholar
Mabb, KT 2002 Naturalized (wild) parrots in California: a current assessment. Department of Biological Sciences, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA, USA. http://natureali.org/parrot_project/mabb_tgf_proceedings.htm (accessed 5 May 2006)Google Scholar
Mason, GJ 1991 Stereotypies: a critical review. Animal Behaviour 41: 1015–1037CrossRefGoogle Scholar
May, D and Hovetter, V 2002 Where the Wild Greys Are: A Day in the Life of Africa's Grey Parrots. VHS. World Parrot Trust, Glamor House, Hayle, Cornwall TR7 4HY, UKGoogle Scholar
McCluggage, D and Higdon, PL 1999 Holistic Care for Birds. A Manual of Wellness and Healing. IDG Books Worldwide: New York, USAGoogle Scholar
McGovern, K 2002 Call of the wild. ParrotChronicles.com (Rare Species Conservatory Foundation), Summer 2002. http://www.par-rotchronicles.com/summer2002/conservationwatch.htm (accessed 5 May 2006)Google Scholar
Meehan, CL, Garner, JP and Mench, JA 2003a Isosexual pair housing improves the welfare of young Amazon parrots. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 81: 73–88CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meehan, CL, Garner, JP and Mench, JA 2004 Environmental enrichment and development of cage stereotypy in orange-wing Amazon parrots (Amazona amazonica). Developmental Psychobiology 44: 209–218CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meehan, CL, Millam, JR and Mench, JA 2003b Foraging opportunity and increased physical complexity both prevent and reduce psychogenic feather picking by young Amazon parrots. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 80: 71–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyers, NM 1998 Perspectives on pet bird welfare from the pet industry. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 212(8): 1238–1242Google ScholarPubMed
Michels, A 2002 Parrot smuggling still a global problem. Animal Welfare Institute Quarterly 51(4). http://www.awionline.org/pubs/Quarterly/fall02/par-rot.htm (accessed 5 May 2006)Google Scholar
Millam, JR, Kenton, B, Jochim, L, Braownback, T and Brice, AT 1995 Breeding orange-winged Amazon parrots in captivity. Zoo Biology 14: 275–284Google Scholar
Nimon, AJ and Broom, DM 1999 The welfare of farmed mink (Mustela vison) in relation to housing and management: a review. Animal Welfare 8: 205–228CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearson, JE, Senne, DA, Carbrey, EA, Erickson, GA and Miller, LD 1975 Viral isolations from exotic birds offered for importation into the United States. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the United States Animal Health Association 1975(79): 219-223Google Scholar
Pepperberg, IM 1999 The Alex Studies: Cognitive and Communicative Abilities of Grey Parrots. Harvard University Press: Cambridge MA, USA; London, UKGoogle Scholar
Pepperberg, IM 2004 Cognitive and communicative capacities of grey parrots: implications for the enrichment of many species. Animal Welfare 13, Suppl: S203-S208CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reid, BR and Perlberg, W 1998 Emerging trends in pet bird diets. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 21(8): 1236–1238Google Scholar
Ritchie, BW 1997 Diagnosing and preventing common viral infections in companion birds. In: Proceedings from the 21st Annual Waltham–OSU Symposium for the Treatment of Small Animal Diseases: Exotics pp 7–13. College of Veterinary Medicine Ohio State University: Ohio, USAGoogle Scholar
Ritchie, BW, Gregory, CR, Latimer, KS, Pesti, D, Campagnoli, R and Luckert, PD 2000 A review of the most common viruses affecting Psittaciformes. International Zoo Yearbook 37: 257–273CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rollin, BE and Rollin, MDH 2003 Dogmaticisms and catechisms: ethics and companion animals. In: Armstrong, SJ and Botzler, RG (eds) The Animal Ethics Reader pp 504–509. Routledge: New York, USAGoogle Scholar
Romagnano, A 2003a Parrot preventive medicine. Proceedings of the International Aviculturists Society. http://www.funny-farmexotics.com/IAS/2003Proceedings/Romagnano_Preventative.pdf (accessed 3 May 2006)Google Scholar
Romagnano, A 2003b Problems associated with improper hand-feeding. Hartz. Exotic Health Newsletter 2: 3Google Scholar
Sargent, TD and Keiper, RR 1967 Stereotypies in caged canaries. Animal Behaviour 15: 62–66CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schuppli, CA and Fraser, D 2000 A framework for assessing the suitability of different species as companion animals. Animal Welfare 9: 359–372CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seibert, LM, Crowell-Davis, SL, Wilson, GH and Ritchie, BW 2004 Placebo-controlled clomipramine trial for the treatment of feather picking disorder in cockatoos. Journal of the American Hospital Association 40: 261–269CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shelgren, JH, Thompson, RA, Palmer, TK, Keffer, MO, Clark, DO and Johnson, J 1975 An Evaluation of the Pest Potential of the Ring-Necked Parakeet, Nanday Conure and the Canary-Winged Parakeet in California. California Department of Food and Agriculture, Division of Plant Industry, Special Services Unit: Sacramento, USAGoogle Scholar
Snyder, N, McGowan, P, Gilardi, J and Grajal, A 2000 Parrots: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan 2000–2004. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources: Gland, Switzerland; Cambridge, UKGoogle Scholar
Stamps, J, Kus, B, Clark, A and Arrowood, P 1990 Social relationships of fledgling budgeriars, Melopsitticus undulates. Animal Behaviour 40: 688–700CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Hoek, CS and ten Cate, C 1998 Abnormal behaviour in caged birds kept as pets. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 1(1): 51–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Voren, H 1995 Wild child. Bird Breeder Magazine, Breeder Q & A, November. http://www.voren.com/95-11.htm (accessed 5 May 2006)Google Scholar
Vriends, MM 1996 Hand-Feeding and Raising Baby Birds. Barrons Educational Series: New York, USAGoogle Scholar
Wilson, LH 1998 Considerations in selecting an appropriate pet bird. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 212(8): 1222–1225Google ScholarPubMed
Wobeser, GA 1994 Investigation and Management of Disease in Wild Animals. Plenum Press: New York, USAGoogle Scholar
Wright, TF, Toft, CA, Enkerlin-Hoeflich, E, Gonzalez-Elizondo, J, Albornoz, M, Rodriguez-Ferraro, A, Rojas-Suarez, F, Sanz, V, Trujillo, A, Beissinger, SR, Berovides, VA, Galvez, AX, Brice, AT, Joyner, K, Eberhard, J, Gilardi, J, Koenig, SE, Stoleson, S, Martuscelli, P, Meyers, JM, Renton, K, Rodriguez, AM, Sosa-Asanza, AC, Vilella, FJ and Wiley, JW 2001 Nest poaching in neotropical parrots. Conservation Biology 15: 710–720CrossRefGoogle Scholar