Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-m6dg7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-13T01:02:07.027Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Le retour de la longue durée: une perspective anglo-américaine

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

David Armitage  and
Jo Guldi
Translated by
Jérôme Baudry
David Armitage
Affiliation:
Harvard University
Jo Guldi
Affiliation:
Brown University
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Résumé

Depuis les années 1970, la plupart des historiens anglophones ont travaillé sur des périodes temporelles s’étendant de cinq à cinquante ans. L’étroitesse de ce champ de vision, ce repli face aux périodes plus longues généralement étudiées jusqu’alors, ont contribué à détacher d’eux un lectorat plus large ainsi qu’à les priver de l’influence qu’ils avaient pu avoir sur le débat public. Cet article étudie les causes et les conséquences de ce repli et propose une solution à la crise de confiance et à la désaffection qu’il a créées. On y soutient qu’un retour à ce que Fernand Braudel a appelé en 1958 dans les Annales la longue durée est à la fois nécessaire et à portée de main : nécessaire si l’on veut que l’histoire retrouve sa place en tant que science sociale critique, à portée de main si l’on pense à la masse de données historiques désormais disponibles et aux nouveaux outils numériques qui permettent de les analyser.

Abstract

Abstract

Since the 1970s, most historians in the anglophone world have worked on timescales of between five and fifty years. This narrow focus represented a retreat from the longer periods generally covered before the late twentieth century and served to cut them off from wider reading publics and to deprive them of the influence on public policy and global governance they had once had. This article surveys the causes and the consequences of this retreat and proposes a solution for the crisis of confidence and of relevance it has created. A return to what Fernand Braudel had classically termed the longue durée in the Annales in 1958 is now both imperative and feasible: imperative, in order to restore history's place as a critical social science; feasible, due to the increased availability of large amounts of historical data and the digital tools necessary to analyze them.

Type
La longue durée en débat
Information
Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales , Volume 70 , Issue 2 , June 2015 , pp. 289 - 318
Copyright
Copyright © Les Éditions de l’EHESS 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

Nous remercions, pour leurs commentaires, Jenny Andersson, Matthew Desmond, Paul Freedman, Stella Ghervas, Daniel Jütte, Jeremy Kessler, Anna Su et John Witt, ainsi que les participants au Legal History Forum de la Yale Law School.

References

1- Platon, Timée, 22c-d, trad. par V. Cousin.

2- Faral, Edmond, La vie quotidienne au temps de saint Louis, Paris, Hachette, 1942 Google Scholar, cité dans la préface de Braudel, Fernand, La Méditerranée et le monde méditerranéen à l’époque de Philippe II, Paris, Armand Colin, 1949, p. XIV Google Scholar.

3- Rorty, Richard (dir.), The Linguistic Turn: Recent Essays in Philosophical Method, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1967 Google Scholar ; Spiegel, Gabrielle M. (dir.), Practicing History: New Directions in Historical Writing after the Linguistic Turn, Londres, Routledge, 2005 Google Scholar ; Surkis, Judith, « When Was the Linguistic Turn ? A Genealogy », The American Historical Review, 117-3, 2012, p. 700–722 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4- Bonnell, Victoria E. et Hunt, Lynn (dir.), Beyond the Cultural Turn: New Directions in the Study of Society and Culture, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1999 Google Scholar ; Cook, James W., Glickman, Lawrence B. et O’Malley, Michael (dir.), The Cultural Turn in U. S. History: Past, Present, and Future, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2008 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5- Hedetoft, Ulf, The Global Turn: National Encounters with the World, Aalborg, Aalborg University Press, 2003 Google Scholar ; Burton, Antoinette (dir.), After the Imperial Turn: Thinking with and through the Nation, Durham, Duke University Press, 2003 Google Scholar ; Fluck, Winfried, Pease, Donald E. et Rowe, John Carlos (dir.), Re-Framing the Transnational Turn in American Studies, Hanovre, Darmouth College Press, 2011 Google Scholar ; Ghosh, Durba, « Another Set of Imperial Turns ? », The American Historical Review, 117-3, 2012, p. 772–793 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6- AHR Forum, dossier « Historiographic ‘Turns’ in Critical Perspective », The American Historical Review, 117-3, 2012, p. 698-813.

7- Jo Guldi, « What is the Spatial Turn ? », 2011, http://spatial.scholarslab.org/spatial-turn/ ; Armitage, David, « The International Turn in Intellectual History », Foundations of Modern International Thought, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2013, p. 17–32 Google Scholar ; repris dans McMahon, Darrin M. et Moyn, Samuel (dir.), Rethinking Modern European Intellectual History, New York, Oxford University Press, 2014, p. 232–252 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

8- Armitage, David, « What's the Big Idea ? Intellectual History and the Longue Durée », History of European Ideas, 38-4, 2012, p. 493–507 CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Guldi, Jo, « Digital Methods and the Longue Durée », in Goldberg, D. T. et Svensson, P. (dir.), Humanities and the Digital, Cambridge, MIT Press, 2015, p. 253–265 Google Scholar.

9- Bourdieu, Pierre, Les règles de l’art. Genèse et structure du champ littéraire, Paris, Ed. du Seuil, 1992, p. 228 Google Scholar.

10- Tilly, Charles, Big Structures, Large Processes, Huge Comparisons, New York, Russell Sage Foundation, 1984 Google Scholar ; LEE, Richard E. (dir.), The Longue Duree and World-Systems Analysis, New York, State University of New York Press, 2012 Google Scholar.

11- Plus généralement, voir Guldi, Jo et Armitage, David, The History Manifesto, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2014, http://historymanifesto.cambridge.org/ CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12- Jockers, Matthew L., Macroanalysis: Digital Methods and Literary History, Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 2013 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, et Moretti, Franco, Distant Reading, Londres, Verso, 2013 Google Scholar, prônent l’utilisation d’outils numériques en littérature également. Un ngram permet de générer un histogramme de la fréquence d’occurrence d’un mot (ou d’une expression composée de deux mots) dans le corpus de Google Books ; un geoparser est un algorithme qui, en soumettant chaque mot à un index géographique, génère une carte des lieux cités dans un corpus donné.

13- Braudel, Fernand, « Histoire et sciences sociales. La longue durée », Annales ESC, 13-4, 1958, p. 725–753, citations p. 725-727Google Scholar.

14- Burke, Peter, The French Historical Revolution: The Annales School, 1929-89, Cambridge, Polity Press, 1990, p. 33 Google Scholar ; Braudel, Paule, «Braudel en captivité », in Carmignani, P. (dir.), Autour de F. Braudel, Perpignan, Presses universitaires de Perpignan, 2001, p. 13–25 Google Scholar ; Schöttler, Peter, « Fernand Braudel als Kriegsgefangener in Deutschland », in Braudel, F., Geschichte als Schlüssel zur Welt. Vorlesungen in deutscher Kriegsgefangenschaft 1941, Stuttgart, Klett-Cotta, 2013, p. 187–211 Google Scholar. Les conférences prononcées par F. Braudel dans les camps ont été reconstituées dans « L’Histoire, mesure du monde », in Braudel, F., Les ambitions de l’Histoire, Paris, Éd. de Fallois, [1941-1944] 1997, p. 13–83 Google Scholar.

15- Aymard, Maurice, «La longue durée aujourd’hui. Bilan d’un demi-siècle (1958-2008) », in Curto, D. R. et al. (dir.), From Florence to the Mediterranean and Beyond: Essays in Honour of Anthony Molho, Florence, L. S. Olschki, 2009, vol. 2, p. 559–580 Google Scholar, ici p. 559-560 ; Gemelli, Giuliana, Fernand Braudel e l’Europa universale, Venise, Marsilio Editore, 1990, p. 246–300 Google Scholar.

16- Berger, Gaston, Phénoménologie du temps et prospective, Paris, PUF, 1964 Google Scholar ; Braudel, Fernand, « Gaston Berger, 1896-1960 », Annales ESC, 16-1, 1961, p. 210–211 Google Scholar ;G. Gemelli, Fernand Braudel…, op. cit., p. 301-362 ; Andersson, Jenny, « The Great Future Debate and the Struggle for the World », The American Historical Review, 117-5, 2012, p. 1411–1430, ici p. 1417-1418CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17- Cette critique fut immédiatement rejetée par Witold KULA, « Histoire et économie. La longue durée », Annales ESC, 15-2, 1960, p. 294-313.

18- F. Braudel, «Histoire et sciences sociales… », art. cit., p. 735 et 751.

19- Lori Thurgood, Mary J. Golladay et Susan T.Hill, « U. S. Doctorates in the 20th Century: Special Report », National Science Foundation, 2006, http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/nsf06319/pdf/nsf06319.pdf.

20- Turner, Frederick Jackson, The Character and Influence of the Indian Trade in Wisconsin: A Study of the Trading Post as an Institution, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press, 1891 Google Scholar ; Du Bois, W. E. B., The Suppression of the African Slave-Trade to the United States of America, 1638-1870, New York, Longmans, Green, and Co., [1895] 1896 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

21- Benjamin Schmidt, « What Years Do Historians Write About ? », Sapping Attention Digital Humanities: Using Tools from the 1990s to Answer Questions from the 1960s about 19th Century America, 2013, http://sappingattention.blogspot.com/2013/05/what-years-do-historians-write-about.html.

22- Bailyn, Bernard, « The Challenge of Modern Historiography », The American Historical Review, 87-1, 1982, p. 1–24, ici p. 2, 4 et 7-8CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

23- Palmer, Robert Roswell, « A Century of French History in America », French Historical Studies, 14-2, 1985, p. 160–175, ici p. 173-174CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

24- Cannadine, David, « British History: Past, Present – And Future ? », Past and Present, 116, 1987, p. 169–191, ici p. 176-177CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

25- Novick, Peter, That Noble Dream: The « Objectivity Question » and the American Historical Profession, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1988, p. 577–592 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

26- Lyotard, Jean-François, La condition postmoderne. Rapport sur le savoir, Paris, Éd. de Minuit, 1979, p. 7 Google Scholar.

27- Rodgers, Daniel T., Age of Fracture, Cambridge, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2011, p. 255 Google Scholar.

28- Knowles, David, The Historian and Character, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1955 Google Scholar.

29- Thompson, Edward P., La formation de la classe ouvrière anglaise, trad. par Dauvé, G., Golaszewski, M. et Thibault, M.-N., Paris, Gallimard/Le Seuil, [1963] 1988 Google Scholar ; Genovese, Eugene D., Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made, New York, Pantheon Books, 1974 Google Scholar.

30- Scott, Joan Wallach, The Glassworkers of Carmaux: French Craftsmen and Political Action in a Nineteenth-Century City, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1974 Google Scholar ; Sewell, William H. Jr., Work and Revolution in France: The Language of Labor from the Old Regime to 1848, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1980 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

31- Judt, Tony, « A Clown in Regal Purple: Social History and the Historians », History Workshop Journal, 7-1, 1979, p. 66–94, ici p. 84-85CrossRefGoogle Scholar (à propos de J. Scott et W. Sewell, entre autres). T. Judt était par ailleurs critique des effets de la longue durée braudélienne sur la « destruction de l’événement historique. La masse d’articles portant sur des sujets minuscules et marginaux en est une conséquence », p. 85.

32- Eley, Geoff, A Crooked Line: From Cultural History to the History of Society, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 2005, p. 129–130 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

33- Jones, Gareth Stedman, Outcast London: A Study in the Relationship between Classes in Victorian Society, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1971 Google Scholar ; Id., Languages of Class: Studies in English Working Class History, 1832-1982, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1983 ; Roediger, David R., The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class, Londres, Verso, 1991 Google Scholar.

34- Davis, Natalie Zemon, Les cultures du peuple. Rituels, savoirs et résistances au XVIe siècle, trad. par Bourguet, M.-N., Paris, Aubier Montaigne, [1975] 1979 Google Scholar ; Darnton, Robert, Le grand massacre des chats. Attitudes et croyances dans l’ancienne France, trad. par Revellat, M.-A., Paris, R. Laffont, [1984] 1984 Google Scholar.

35- Grendi, Edoardo, « Micro-analisi e storia sociale », Quaderni storici, 12-35, 1977, p. 506–520, ici p. 512Google Scholar. Plus généralement, voir Revel, Jacques (dir.), Jeux d’échelles. La micro-analyse à l’expérience, Paris, Gallimard/Le Seuil, 1996 Google Scholar ; Lanaro, Paola (dir.), Microstoria. A venticinque anni de L’eredita immateriale, Milan, Franco Angeli, 2011 Google Scholar ; Trivellato, Francesca, « Is There a Future for Italian Microhistory in the Age of GlobalHistory ? », California Italian Studies, 2-1, 2011, http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/0z94n9hq CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

36- Ginzburg, Carlo, Storia notturna. Una decifrazione del sabba, Turin, G. Einaudi, 1989 Google Scholar.

37- Levi, Giovanni, « On Microhistory », in Burke, P. (dir.), New Perspectives on Historical Writing, Cambridge, Polity Press, 1991, p. 97–114, ici p. 94Google Scholar.

38- Phillips, Mark Salber, On Historical Distance, New Haven, Yale University Press, 2013, p. 205–206 Google Scholar.

39- Par exemple, Rose, Robert Barrie, « The Priestley Riots of 1791 », Past and Present, 18, 1960, p. 68–88 CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Bohstedt, John, Riots and Community Politics in England and Wales, 1790-1810, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1983 CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Haydon, Colin, Anti-Catholicism in Eighteenth-Century England, c. 1714-80: A Political and Social Study, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1993 Google Scholar ; Haywood, Ian et Seed, John (dir.), The Gordon Riots: Politics, Culture and Insurrection in Late Eighteenth-Century Britain, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2012 Google Scholar.

40- Hacking, Ian, Mad Travelers: Reflections on the Reality of Transient Mental Illnesses, Charlottesville, University Press of Virginia, 1998 Google Scholar ; Veith, Ilza, Hysteria: The History of a Disease, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1965 Google Scholar ; Darnton, Robert, Mesmerism and the End of the Enlightenment in France, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1968 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

41- G. ELEY, A Crooked Line…, op. cit., p. 129.

42- Heffer, Jean, « Is the Longue Durée Un-American ? », Review, 24-1, 2001, p. 125–137, ici p. 137Google Scholar.

43- Webb, Beatrice et Webb, Sidney, English Local Government, Londres, Longmans, Green and Co., 1906-1929, 9 vol.Google Scholar ; Hammond, John Lawrence et Hammond, Barbara, The Village Labourer, 1760-1832: A Study in the Government of England before the Reform Bill, Londres, Longmans, Green and Co., 1911 Google Scholar ; Tawney, Richard H., The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century, Londres, Longmans, Green and Co., 1912 Google Scholar.

44- Id., A Memorandum on Agriculture and Industry in China, Honolulu, Institute of Pacific Relations, 1929 ; Id., Land and Labour in China, Londres, G. Allen and Unwin, 1932 ; Goldman, Lawrence, The Life of R. H. Tawney: Socialism and History, Londres, Bloomsbury Academic, 2013, p. 147 Google Scholar.

45- Hazra, Amit, Land Reforms: Myths and Realities, New Delhi, Concept Publishing, 2006 Google Scholar ; Akram-Lodhi, A. Haroon, Jr.Borras, Saturnino M. et Kay, Cristobal (dir.), Land, Poverty and Livelihoods in an Era of Globalization: Perspectives from Developing and Transition Countries, Londres, Routledge, 2007 CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Readman, Paul, Land and Nation in England: Patriotism, National Identity, and the Politics of Land, 1880-1914, Woodbridge, Boydell Press, 2008 Google Scholar ; Cragoe, Matthew et Readman, Paul (dir.), The Land Question in Britain, 1750-1950, Londres, Palgrave Macmillan, 2010 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

46- Par exemple, Scrutton, Thomas Edward, Commons and Common Fields: Or, The History and Policy of the Laws Relating to Commons and Enclosures in England, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1887 Google Scholar ; Tawney, Richard H., « The Rise of the Gentry, 1558-1640 », The Economic History Review, 11-1, 1941, p. 1–38 CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Thirsk, Joan, « The Restoration Land Settlement », The Journal of Modern History, 26-4, 1954, p. 315–328 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

47- Orr, John, A Short History of British Agriculture, Londres, Oxford University Press, 1922 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

48- Landes, David, The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present, Londres, Cambridge University Press, 1969 Google Scholar.

49- Tuma, Elias H., Twenty-Six Centuries of Agrarian Reform: A Comparative Analysis, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1965 CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; King, Russell, Land Reform: A World Survey, Londres, G. Bell, 1977 Google Scholar.

50- Chandler, Alfred N., Land Title Origins: A Tale of Force and Fraud, New York, Robert Schalkenbach Foundation, 1945Google Scholar.

51- Grossi, Paolo, Un altro modo di possedere. L’emersione di forme alternative di proprietà alla coscienza giuridica postunitaria, Milan, A. Giuffre, 1977 Google Scholar ; Geiger, George Raymond, The Theory of the Land Question, New York, Macmillan, 1936 Google Scholar.

52- Sakolski, Aaron M., Land Tenure and Land Taxation in America, New York, Robert Schalkenbach Foundation, 1957, p. 13 Google Scholar ; a comparer avec Nelson, Eric, The Hebrew Republic: Jewish Sources and the Transformation of European Political Thought, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2010, p. 57–87 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

53- Charles Dupin, Voyages dans la Grande-Bretagne entrepris relativement aux services publics de la guerre, de la marine et des ponts et chaussées, en 1816, 1817, 1818, 1819 et 1820, vol. 5, Force commerciale de la Grande-Bretagne, Paris, Bachelier, 1824.

54- Voir, par exemple, Ehrlich, Paul R., The Population Bomb, New York, Ballantine Books, 1968 Google Scholar ; Borlaug, Norman, Mankind and Civilization at Another Crossroad, Madison, FAO, 1971 Google Scholar ; Leonard, George, The Transformation: A Guide to the Inevitable Changes in Humankind, New York, Delacorte Press, 1972 Google Scholar ; Meadows, Donella et al., The Limits to Growth: A Report for the Club of Rome's Project on the Predicament of Mankind, New York, Universe Books, 1972 Google Scholar ; Berry, Adrian, The Next Ten Thousand Years: A Vision of Man's Future in the Universe, New York, Saturday Review Press, 1974 Google Scholar.

55- Aligică, Paul Dragoş, Prophecies of Doom and Scenarios of Progress: Herman Kahn, Julian Simon, and the Prospective Imagination, New York, Continuum International Pub. Group, 2007 Google Scholar ; J. Andersson, «The Great Future Debate… », art. cit., p. 1416.

56- Clark, William D., « Creating Political Will », in Legum, C. (dir.), The First U. N. Development Decade and Its Lessons for the 1970’s, New York, Praeger Publishers, 1970, p. 148 Google Scholar.

57- Citée par Grace V.Leslie, « Seven Hundred Pages of ‘Minor Revisions’ from the Soviet Union: Caroline Ware, the Unesco History of Mankind, and the Trials of Writing International History in a Bi-Polar World, 1954-66 », in « The Global Dimensions of U. S. Power: Rethinking Liberal Internationalism at the Midcentury », congres de l’American Historical Association, La Nouvelle-Orléans, 2013 ; sur le projet de l’Unesco, voir Allardyce, Gilbert, « Toward World History: American Historians and the Coming of the World History Course », Journal of World History, 1-1, 1990, p. 26–40 Google Scholar.

58- Cooper, Frederick et Packard, Randall M. (dir.), International Development and the Social Sciences: Essays on the History and Politics of Knowledge, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1997 Google Scholar ; Rist, Gilbert, The History of Development: From Western Origins to Global Faith, New York, Zed Books, 2002 Google Scholar ; Gilman, Nils, Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America, Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007 Google Scholar.

59- Markoff, John et Montecinos, Verónica, « The Ubiquitous Rise of Economists », Journal of Public Policy, 13-1, 1993, p. 37–68 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

60- Ibid. ; Suttles, Gerald D. et Jacobs, Mark D., Front Page Economics, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2011 Google Scholar ; Bayly, Christopher A. et al. (dir.), History, Historians and Development Policy: A Necessary Dialogue, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2011 Google Scholar ; Cox, Pamela, « The Future Uses of History », History Workshop Journal, 75-1, 2013, p. 125–145 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

61- Jacoby, Russell, The Last Intellectuals: American Culture in the Age of Academe, New York, Basic Books, 1987 Google Scholar ; Posner, Richard A., Public Intellectuals: A Study of Decline, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2003 Google Scholar ; Jo GULDI, «The Surprising Death of the Public Intellectual: A Manifesto for Restoration », Absent, 1-2, 2008, http://archive.org/details/TheSurprisingDeathOfThePublicIntellectualAManifestoForRestoration.

62- Smail, Daniel Lord, On Deep History and the Brain, Berkeley, University of California Press, 2008 Google Scholar.

63- Par exemple, Google Book Search, Archive.org, Hathi Trust et le Projet Gutenberg ; Guldi, Joanna, « The History of Walking and the Digital Turn: Stride and Lounge in London, 1808-1851 », The Journal of Modern History, 84-1, 2012, p. 116–144 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

64- Adelman, Jeremy, « Latin American Longues Durées », Latin American Research Review, 39-1, 2004, p. 223–237, ici p. 224Google Scholar.

65- Laqueur, Thomas W., « Sexuality and the Transformation of Culture: The Longue Durée », Sexualities, 12-4, 2009, p. 418–436, ici p. 418CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

66- GILLMAN, Susan, « Oceans of Longues Durées », PMLA, 127-2, 2012, p. 328–334, ici p. 328Google Scholar. Plus generalement, voir Weinstein, Barbara, « History Without a Cause ? Grand Narratives, World History, and the Postcolonial Dilemma », International Review of Social History, 50-1, 2005, p. 71–93 CrossRefGoogle Scholar et Christian, David, «The Return of Universal History », History and Theory, 49-4, 2010, p. 6–27 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

67- Connelly, Matthew, « The Cold War in the Longue Durée: Global Migration, Public Health, and Population Control », in Leffler, M. P. et Westad, O.A. (dir.), The Cambridge History of the Cold War, vol. 3, Endings, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2009, p. 466–488 Google Scholar ; Hoerder, Dirk, « Migrations and Belongings: A Longue-Durée Perspective », in Rosenberg, E. S. (dir.), A World Connecting, 1870-1945, Cambridge, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2012, p. 444–467 Google Scholar ; Bauer, Alexander A. et Doonan, Owen P., « Fluid Histories: Culture, Community, and the Longue Durée of the Black Sea World », in Ivan, R. (dir.), New Regionalism or No Regionalism ? Emerging Regionalism in the Black Sea Area, Farnham, Ashgate, 2012, p. 13–30 Google Scholar ; Lux-Sterritt, Laurence et Mangion, Carmen M., « Gender, Catholicism and Women's Spirituality over the Longue Durée », in Lux-Sterritt, L. et Mangion, C. M. (dir.), Gender, Catholicism and Spirituality: Women and the Roman Catholic Church in Britain and Europe, 1200-1900, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2011, p. 1–18 CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Leonhard, Jorn, « The Longue Durée of Empire: Comparative Semantics of a Key Concept in Modern European History », Contributions to the History of Concepts, 8-1, 2013, p. 1–25 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

68- Chaplin, Joyce E., Round about the Earth: Circumnavigation from Magellan to Orbit, New York, Simon and Schuster, 2012 Google Scholar ; MacCulloch, Diarmaid, A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years, Londres, Allen Lane, 2009 Google Scholar ; Nirenberg, David, Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition, New York, W. W. Norton, 2013 Google Scholar ; Kiernan, Ben, Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur, New Haven, Yale University Press, 2007 Google Scholar ; Freedman, Lawrence, Strategy: A History, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2013 Google Scholar ; Morris, Ian, Why the West Rules – For Now: The Patterns of History, and What They Reveal about the Future, New York, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2010 Google Scholar ; Id., The Measure of Civilization: How Social Development Decides the Fate of Nations, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2013.

69- Brown, Cynthia Stokes, Big History: From the Big Bang to the Present, New York, New Press, 2007 Google Scholar ; Spier, Fred, Big History and the Future of Humanity, Chichester, Wiley-Blackwell, 2010 CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Christian, David, Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History, Berkeley, University of California Press, [2004] 2011 Google Scholar.

70- Shryock, Andrew et Smail, Daniel Lord (dir.), Deep History: The Architecture of Past and Present, Berkeley, University of California Press, 2011 CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Id., « History and the Pre », The American Historical Review, 118-3, 2013, p. 709-737.

71- Chakrabarty, Dipesh, « The Climate of History: Four Theses », Critical Inquiry, 35-2, 2009, p. 197–222 CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Id., « Postcolonial Studies and the Challenge of Climate Change », New Literary History, 43-1, 2012, p. 1-18 ; Steffen, Will et al., « The Anthropocene: Conceptual and Historical Perspectives », Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 369-1938, 2011, p. 842–867 Google ScholarPubMed ; Jonsson, Fredrik Albritton, « The Industrial Revolution in the Anthropocene », The Journal of Modern History, 84-3, 2012, p. 679–696 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

72- http://books.google.com/ngrams; http://www.wordle.net/; http://papermachines.org/. En partant de la fréquence d’occurrence des mots, un wordle permet de visualiser les thèmes d’un texte et de les hiérarchiser. Les mots les plus fréquents sont affichés au centre de la page et leur police est augmentée. Paper Machines est un plug-in conçu pour le logiciel Zotero. Il permet d’appliquer aisément wordles, ngrams et autres outils de visualisation aux corpus réunis manuellement par les historiens sur leur ordinateur.

73- http://www.oldbaileyonline.org/; https://sites.google.com/site/colinwilder/.

74- Brandt, Allan M., The Cigarette Century: The Rise, Fall, and Deadly Persistence of the Product that Defined America, New York, Basic Books, 2007 Google Scholar ; Proctor, Robert, Golden Holocaust: Origins of the Cigarette Catastrophe and the Case for Abolition, Berkeley, University of California Press, 2011 Google Scholar.

75- Jonsson, Fredrik Albritton, Enlightenment's Frontier: The Scottish Highlands and the Origins of Environmentalism, New Haven, Yale University Press, 2013 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

76- Bashford, Alison, Global Population: History, Geopolitics, and Life on Earth, New York, Columbia University Press, 2014 Google Scholar.

77- Zinn, Howard, A People's History of the United States, New York, Harper and Row, 1980 Google Scholar.

78- Marshall, Peter H., Nature's Web: An Exploration of Ecological Thinking, Londres, Simon and Schuster, 1992 Google Scholar ; Id., Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism, Oakland, PM Press, 2010 ; Curl, John, For All the People: Uncovering the Hidden History of Cooperation, Cooperative Movements, and Communalism in America, Oakland, PM Press, 2009 Google Scholar ; Davis, Mike, City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles, Londres, Verso, 1990 Google Scholar ; Id., Planet of Slums, Londres, Verso, 2006 ; Satter, Beryl, Family Properties: Race, Real Estate, and the Exploitation of Black Urban America, New York, Metropolitan Books, 2009 Google Scholar.

79- Boswell, John, Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality: Gay People in Western Europe from the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Fourteenth Century, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1980 Google Scholar ; Leach, William, True Love and Perfect Union: The Feminist Reform of Sex and Society, New York, Basic Books, 1980 Google Scholar.

80- J. Guldi et D. Armitage, The History Manifesto, op. cit.

81- J. Guldi, « Digital Methods and the Longue Durée », art. cit.

82- J. Guldi, « The History of Walking and the Digital Turn… », art. cit. ; Id., « Digital Methods and the Longue Durée », art. cit. ; http://www.papermachines.org/; à comparer avec Graham, Shawn, Milligan, Ian et Weingart, Scott, Big Digital History: Exploring Big Data through a Historian's Macroscope, Londres, Imperial College Press, 2014, http://www.themacroscope.org/ Google Scholar.

83- Piketty, Thomas, Les hauts revenus en France au XXe siècle. Inégalités et redistributions, 1901-1998, Paris, B. Grasset, 2001 Google Scholar ; Piketty, Thomas et Saez, Emmanuel, « Income Inequality in the United States, 1913-1998 », The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 118-1, 2003, p. 1–41 CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Atkinson, Anthony B. et Piketty, Thomas (dir.), Top Incomes over the Twentieth Century: A Contrast between Continental European and English-Speaking Countries, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2007 Google Scholar ; Atkinson, Anthony B., Piketty, Thomas et Saez, Emmanuel, « Top Incomes in the Long Run of History », Journal of Economic Literature, 49-1, 2011, p. 3–71 CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Piketty, Thomas, Le capital au XXIe siècle, Paris, éd. du Seuil, 2013 Google Scholar.

84- Rothschild, Emma, « The Future of History », in Grandin, K. (ed.), Going Digital: Evolutionary and Revolutionary Aspects of Digitization, Stockholm, Center for History of Science at the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 2011, p. 280–294 Google Scholar.

85- Cosgrove, Denis E., Apollo's Eye: A Cartographic Genealogy of the Earth in the Western Imagination, Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001 CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Gillis, John R., The Human Shore: Seacoasts in History, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2012 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

86- Fasolt, Constantin, The Limits of History, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2004, p. 19 Google Scholar.

87- David Armitage, Civil War: A History in Ideas from Rome to the Present, a paraítre ; Jo Guldi, The Long Land War: A Global History of Land Reform, c. 1860-Present, a paraítre.