Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-q99xh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T18:45:18.512Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Human-induced physical disturbances and their indicatorson coral reef habitats: A multi-scale approach

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 November 2005

Pascale Chabanet ,
Mehdi Adjeroud ,
Serge Andréfouët ,
Yves-Marie Bozec ,
Jocelyne Ferraris ,
Jose-Antonio Garcìa-Charton  and
Muriel Schrimm
Pascale Chabanet
Affiliation:
IRD, UR CoRéUs, BP A5, 98848 Nouméa Cedex, Nouvelle-Calédonie, France Université de La Réunion, ECOMAR, BP 7151, 97715 St-Denis Cedex 9, La Réunion, France
Mehdi Adjeroud
Affiliation:
EPHE, Université de Perpignan, Laboratoire de Biologie marine et Malacologie, UMR 8046 CNRS, 66860 Perpignan Cedex, France
Serge Andréfouët
Affiliation:
IRD, UR CoRéUs, BP A5, 98848 Nouméa Cedex, Nouvelle-Calédonie, France
Yves-Marie Bozec
Affiliation:
IRD, UR-CoRéUs, Agrocampus Rennes, Département halieutique UPR MESH CS 84215, 35042 Rennes Cedex, France
Jocelyne Ferraris
Affiliation:
IRD, UR CoRéUs, BP A5, 98848 Nouméa Cedex, Nouvelle-Calédonie, France EPHE, Université de Perpignan, Laboratoire de Biologie marine et Malacologie, UMR 8046 CNRS, 66860 Perpignan Cedex, France
Jose-Antonio Garcìa-Charton
Affiliation:
Dep. Ecología e Hidrología, Universidad de Murcia, Campus de Espinardo, 30100 Murcia, Spain
Muriel Schrimm
Affiliation:
EPHE, Université de Perpignan, Laboratoire de Biologie marine et Malacologie, UMR 8046 CNRS, 66860 Perpignan Cedex, France
Get access

Abstract

This article aims to review 1) the major and most frequent human-induced physical disturbances and their consequences on coral reef habitats using a multi-scale approach, and 2) the scale-related indicators and conceptual aspects used to detect and measure the effects of these physical impacts. By physical disturbances, we mean direct perturbations that lead to the destruction/erosion of the carbonate framework. Human-induced direct physical disturbances are numerous from coastal development, tourism, harvesting, accidents and nuclear/weapon testing. Since methods for monitoring and measuring indicators are generally scale-implicit, coral reefs are first presented according to different ecological-spatial scales of organization, from colony to region (colony, reefscape, reef zone, whole reef, island and region). In this way, it is easier to link a couple {habitat, disturbance} to their potential indicators and to the descriptors they target. Three classes of descriptors, related to the response of the living component of coral reef ecosystem, are considered here: stony coral, reef fishes and the human uses. A synthesis of the different options for coral habitat assessments is proposed. We sort them according to their objectives (monitor, initial status or improvement of knowledge), their specificities (identification or not of a specific disturbances) and their scale of investigation (small, meso- or large scales). Usually, the majority of the indicators of human-induced disturbances are non-specific. They reveal that something is happening but not the actual causality and can only detect differences across time or space. A major weakness lies in the difficulty in deconvoluting the signals from a conjunction of stressors occurring at different scales. As such, a hierarchical concept of disturbances in coral reefs would be the next logical step to enhance our capabilities in monitoring and forecasting coral reefs status.

Keywords

Coral reefPhysical disturbancesHabitatHuman-induced disturbancesIndicator
Type
Research Article
Information
Aquatic Living Resources , Volume 18 , Issue 3 , July 2005 , pp. 215 - 230
Copyright
© EDP Sciences, IFREMER, IRD, 2005

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achituv Y., Dubinsky Z., 1990, Evolution and zoogeography of coral reefs. In: Dubinsky Z. (Ed.), Ecosystems of the world, Elsevier, pp. 1-9.
Adjeroud, M., 1997, Factors influencing spatial patterns on coral reefs around Moorea, French Polynesia. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 159, 105-119. CrossRef
Adjeroud, M., Augustin, D., Galzin, R., Salvat, B., 2002, Natural disturbances and interannual variability of coral reef communities on the outer slope of Tiahura (Moorea, French Polynesia): 1991 to 1997, Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 237, 121-131. CrossRef
Alcala A.C., Gomez E.D., 1987, Dynamiting coral reefs for fish: a resource-destructive fishing method. In: Salvat B. (Ed.), Human impacts on coral reefs: facts and recommendations. Antenne Museum EPHE, French Polynesia, pp. 51-60.
Allison, W.R., 1996, Snorkeler damage to reef corals in the Maldive Islands. Coral Reefs 15, 215-218. CrossRef
Andersson J., 1998, The value of coral reefs for the current and potential tourism industry in Unguja. In: Johstone L., Francis C., Muhando C. (Eds.), Coral Reefs: values, Threats and Solutions. Proc. Nat. Conf. on coral reefs, Nairobi, Kenya, pp. 81-90.
Andréfouët, S., Kramer, P., Torres-Pulliza, D., Joyce, K.E., Hochberg, E.J., Garza-Perez, R., Mumby, P.J., Riegl, B., Yamano, H., White, W.H., Zubia, M., Brock, J.C., Phinn, S.R., Naseer, A., Hatcher, B.G., Muller-Karger, F.E., 2003, Multi-sites evaluation of IKONOS data for classification of tropical coral reef environments. Remote Sens. Environ. 88, 128-143. CrossRef
Aroson R.B., Swanson D.W., 1997, Evolutionary paleoecology of Caribbean reef coral. In: Allmon W.D. and Bottjer D.J. (Eds). Evolutionary paleoecology: the ecological context of macroevolutionary change. Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 171-233.
Aroson R.B., Edmunds P.J., Precht W.F., Swanson D.W., Levitan D.R., 1994, Large-scale, long term monitoring of Caribbean coral reefs: simple, quick, inexpensive techniques. Atoll Res. Bull. 421.
Augustin, D., Galzin, R., Legendre, P., Salvat, B., 1997, Variation interannuelle des peuplements récifaux du récif-barrière de Tiahura (île de Moorea, Polynésie française). Oceanol. Acta 20, 743-756.
Bablet J.P., Perrault G.H., 1987, Effects on a coral environment of a nuclear detonation. In: Salvat B. (Ed.), Human impacts on coral reefs: facts and recommendations. Antenne Museum EPHE, French Polynesia, pp. 151-163.
Bak, R.P.M., 1978, Lethal and sublethal effects of dredging on reef corals. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 9, 14-16. CrossRef
Bak, R.P.M., 1987, Effects of chronic oil pollution on a Caribbean coral reef. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 18, 534-539. CrossRef
Bak, R.P.M., Nieuwland, G., 1995, Long-term changes in coral communities along depth gradients over leeward reefs in the Netherlands Antilles. Bull. Mar. Sci. 56, 609-619.
Bell, P.R.F., 1992, Eutrophication and coral reefs-some examples in the Great Barrier Reef lagoon. Water. Res. 26, 553-568. CrossRef
Bell J.D., Galzin R. 1984, Influence of live coral cover on coral-reef fish communities. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 15, 265-274.
Bellwood, D.R., Hughes, T.P., Folke, C., Nyström, M., 2004, Confronting the coral reef crisis. Nature 429, 827-833. CrossRef
Bengtsson, J., Angelstam, P., Elmqvist, T., Emanuelson, U., Folke, C., Ihse, M., Moberg, F., Nystrom, M., 2003, Reserves, resilience and dynamic landscape. Ambio 32, 389-396. CrossRef
Berg, H., Öhman, M., Troëng, S., Linden, O., 1998, Environmental economics of coral reef destruction in Sri Lanka. Ambio 27, 627-634.
Bouchez J., Lecomte R., 1995, Les atolls de Mururoa et de Fangataufa (Polynésie française), II : les experimentations nucléaires, effets mécaniques, lumino-thermiques, électromagnétiques. Masson, Paris.
Bouchon Navaro Y., Bouchon C. 1989, Correlations between chaetodontid fishes and coral communities of the Gulf of Aqaba (Red Sea). Environ. Biol. Fish. 25, 47-60.
Brock, J., Wright, C., Clayton, T., Nayegandhi, A., 2004, Optical rugosity of coral reefs in Biscayne National Park, Florida. Coral Reefs 23, 48-59. CrossRef
Brown, B.E., Howard, L.S., 1985, Assessing the effects of “stress” on reef corals. Adv. Mar. Biol. 22, 1-63. CrossRef
Brown, B.E., Dunne, R.P., 1988, The impact of coral mining on coral reefs in the Maldives. Environ. Conserv. 15, 159-165. CrossRef
Bruckner, A.W., Bruckner, R.J., 2001, Condition of restored Acropora palmata fragments off Mona Island, Puerto Rico, 2 years after the Fortuna Reefer ship grounding. Coral Reefs 20, 235-243.
Bruggeman J.H., 1994, Parrotfish grazing on coral reefs: a trophic novelty. PhD Univ. Groningen.
Burns, K.A., Knap, A.H., 1989, The Bahia Las Minas oil spill hydrocarbon uptake by reef building corals. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 20, 391-398. CrossRef
Burns, K.A., Ehrhardt, M.G., Howes, B.L., Taylor, C.D., 1993, Subtidal benthic community respiration and production near the heavily oiled Gulf coast of Saudi Arabia. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 27, 199-205. CrossRef
Cadoret L., Adjeroud M., Tsuchiya M. 1999, Spatial distribution of chaetodontid fish in coral reefs of the Ryukyu Islands, southern Japan. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. UK 79, 725-735.
Carpenter, K.E., Alcala, A.C., 1977, Philippines coral reef fisheries resources. Part II. Muro-Ami and Kayakas reef fisheries, benefit or bane? Philipp. J. Fish. 15, 217-235.
Chabanet, P., Ralambondrainy, H., Amanieu, M., Faure, G., 1997, Relationship between coral reef substrata and fish. Coral Reefs 16, 93-102. CrossRef
Chadwick-Furman N.E., 1996, Effects of scuba diving on coral reef invertebrates in the U.S. Virgin Islands: implications for management of diving tourism. Proc. 6th Int. Coelenterate Bio. Symp., Amsterdam.
Clarke, K.R., Warwick, R.M., Brow, B.E., 1993, An index showing breakdown of seriation, related to disturbance, in a coral-reef assemblage. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 102, 153-160. CrossRef
Conand C., Chabanet P., Bigot L., Quod J.P., 2000, Guidelines for coral reef monitoring in the south west region of the Indian Ocean. Handbook PRE/COI, 27.
Connell, J.H., 1978, Diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs. Science 199, 1302-1310. CrossRef
Connell, J.H., Hughes, T.P., Wallace, C.C., 1997, A 30-year study of coral abundance, recruitment, and disturbance at several scales in space and time. Ecol. Monogr. 67, 461-488. CrossRef
Constanza, R., D'Arge, R., deGroot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limburg, K., Naeem, S., O'Neill, R., Paruelo, J., Raskin, R., Sutton, P., van den Belt, M., 1997, The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387, 256.
Cox, E.F., 1994, Resource use by corallivorous butterflyfishes (family Chaetodontidae) in Hawaii. Bull. Mar. Sci. 54, 535-545.
Crosby M.P., Reese E.S., 1996, A manual for monitoring coral reefs with indicator species: butterflyfishes as indicators of change on Indo-Pacific reefs. Silver Spring, MD: Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 45 p.
Dahl, A.L., 1988, Surface area in ecological analysis: quantification of benthic coral-reef algae. Mar. Biol. 23, 239-249. CrossRef
Dale, V.H., Beyeler, S.C., 2001, Challenges in the development and use of ecological indicators. Ecol. Indic. 1, 3-10. CrossRef
Davis, G.E., 1977, Anchor damage to a coral reef on the coast of Florida. Biol. Conserv. 11, 29-34. CrossRef
De Vantier, L.M., 1986, Studies in the assessmant of coral reef ecosystems. In: Brown B.E. (Ed.) “Human induced damage to coral reefs”. Unesco Rep. Marine Science 40, 99-111.
Dixon, J.A, Scura, L.F., van't Hof T., 1993, Meeting ecological and economic goals: marine parks in the Caribbean. Ambio 22, 117-125.
Dodge, R.E., Wyers, S.C., Frith, H.R., Knap, A.H., Smith, S.R., Sleeter, T.D., 1984, The effects of oil and oil dispersants on the skeletal growth of the hermatypic coral Diploria strigosa. Coral Reefs 3, 191-198. CrossRef
Dollar, S.J., Grigg, R.W., 1981, Impact of Kaolin clay spill on a coral reef in Hawaii. Mar. Biol. 65, 269-276. CrossRef
Done, T.J., 1992, Phase shifts in coral reef communities and their ecological significance. Hydrobiologia 247, 121-132. CrossRef
Done T.J., Ogden J.C., Wiebe W.J., Rosen R.B., 1996, Biodiversity and ecosystem function of coral reefs. In: Mooney H.A., Cusman J.H., Medina E., Sala O.E., Schulze E.D. (Eds.), Functional roles of biodiversity: global perspectives. Wiley and Sons Ltd, London, pp. 393-423.
Downs, C.A., Mueller, E., Philipps, S., Fauth, J.E., Woodley, C.M., 2000, A molecular biomarker system for assessing the health of coral (Montastrea faveolata) during heat stress. Mar. Biotechnol. 2, 533-544. CrossRef
Dustan, P., Halas, J.C., 1987, Changes in the reef-coral community of Carysfort Reef, Key Largo, Florida, 1974 to 1982. Coral Reefs 6, 91-106. CrossRef
Dustan P., 1994, Developing methods for assessing coral reef vitality: a tale of two scales. Proc. Colloq. Global aspects of coral reefs: health, hazards and history, pp. 38-45.
Edinger, P., Risk, M., 2000, Reef classification by coral morphology predict coral reef conservation value. Biol. Conserv. 92, 1-13. CrossRef
Eldredge L.G., 1987, Poisons for fishing on coral reefs. In: Salvat, B. (Ed), Human impacts on coral reefs: facts and recommendations. Antenne Museum EPHE, French Polynesia, pp. 61-66.
English S., Wilkinson C., Baker V., 1994, Survey manual for tropical marine resource. Australian Institute of Marine Science.
Epstein, N., Bak, R.P.M., Rinkevich, B., 2000, Toxicity and third generation dispersants and dispered Egyptian crude oil on Red Sea coral larvae. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 40, 497-503. CrossRef
Erdmann M.V., 2000, Destructive fishing practices in Indonesian seas. In: Sheppard C. (Ed.), Seas at the millenium: an environmental evaluation. Pergamon, Amsterdam, pp. 392-393.
Fabricius, K.E., 2005, Effects of terrestrial runoff on the ecology of corals and coral reefs: review and synthesis. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 5, 125-146. CrossRef
Findley, J.S., Findley, M.T., 1985, A search for pattern in butterfly fish communities. Am. Nat. 126, 800-816. CrossRef
Fowler, A.J., 1990, Spatial and temporal patterns of distribution and abundance of chaetodontid fishes at One Tree Reef, southern GBR. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 64, 39-53. CrossRef
Fox, H., 2004, Coral recruitment in blasted and unblasted sites in Indonesia: assessing rehabilitation potential. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 269, 131-139. CrossRef
Fox H.E., Mous P., Pet J., Muljadi A., Caldwell, R.L., 2005, Experimental assessment of coral reef rehabilitation following blast fishing. Conserv. Biol.19, 98-107.
Fucik K.W., Bright T.J., Goodman K.S., 1984, Measurements of damage, recovery, and rehabilitation of coral reefs exposed to oil. In: Cairns J., Buikema A.L. (Eds.), Restoration of habitats impacted by oil spills. Butterworth, London, pp. 115-133.
Galvez, R., Sadorra, M.S., 1988, Blast fishing: a Philippine case study. Trop. Coast. Area Manage. 3, 9-10.
Gattuso, J.P., Pichon, M., Delesalle, B., Frankignoulle, M., 1993, Community metabolism and air-sea CO2 fluxes in a coral reef ecosystem (Moorea, French Polynesia). Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 96, 259-267. CrossRef
Gattuso, J.P., Allemand, D., Frankignoulle, M., 1999, Interactions between the carbon and carbonate cycles at organism and community level in coral reefs: a review on process and control by the carbonate chemistry. Am. Zool. 39, 160-183. CrossRef
Ginsburg, R.N., Bak, R.P.M., Kiene, W.E., Gischler, E., Kosmynin, V., 1996, Rapid assessmentof of reef condition using coral vitality. Reef Encounter 19, 12-14.
Gomez E.D., Alcala A.C., Yap H.T., 1987, Other fishing methods destructive to coral. In: Salvat B. (Ed.), Human impacts on coral reefs: facts and recommendations. Antenne Museum EPHE, French Polynesia, pp. 67-75.
Gomez E.D., Yap H.T., 1988, Monitoring reef condition. In: Kenchington R.A. and Hudson B. (Ed.), Coral reef management handbook UNESCO regional office for science and technology for southeast Asia (ROSTSEA), Jakarta, pp. 171–178.
Gomez, E.D., Alino, P.M., Yap, H.T., Licuanan, W.Y., 1994, A review of the status of Philippines reefs. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 29, 62-68. CrossRef
Goreau, T.F., 1959, The physiology of skeleton formation in corals. I. A method for measuring the rate of calcium deposition by corals under different conditions. Biol. Bull. 116, 59-75.
Grigg, R.W., 1983, Community structure, succession and development of coral reefs in Hawaii. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 11, 1-14. CrossRef
Grigg, R.W., 1984, Resource management of precious corals: a review and application to shallow water reef building corals. Mar. Ecol. 5, 57-74. CrossRef
Grigg R.W., Dollar S.J., 1990, Natural and anthropogenic disturbance on coral reef ecology. In: Dubinsky Z. (Eds.), Ecosystems of the world 25, Coral reefs. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 439-452.
Guzman, H.M., Jimenez, C.E., 1992, Contamination of coral reefs by heavy metals along the Caribbean coast of Central America (Costa Rica and Panama). Mar. Pollut. Bull. 24, 554-561. CrossRef
Guzman, H.M., Holst, I., 1993, Effects of chronic oil-sediment pollution on the reproduction of the Caribbean reef coral Siderastrea siderea. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 26, 282. CrossRef
Guzman, H.M., Castillo, A., 2003, Natural disturbances and mining of Panamanian coral reefs by indigenous people. Conserv. Biol. 17, 1396-1401. CrossRef
Guzman, H.M., Jackson, J.B.C., Weil, E., 1991, Short-term ecological consequences of a major oil spill on Panamanian subtidal reef corals. Coral Reefs 10, 1-12. CrossRef
Hall, V.R., 2001, The response of Acropora hyacinthus and Montipora tuberculosa to three different types of colony damage: scraping injury, tissue mortality and breakage. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 264, 209-223. CrossRef
Hallock, P., Barnes, K., Fisher, E.M., 2004, Coral-reef risk assessment from satellites to molecules: a multi-scale approach to environmental monitoring and risk assessment of coral reefs. Environ. Micropaleont. Microbiol. Meiobenthol. 1, 11-39.
Hatcher, B.G., 1984, A maritime accident provides evidence for alternate stable states in benthic communities on coral reefs. Coral Reefs 3, 199-204. CrossRef
Hatcher, B.G., Johannes, R.E., Robertson, A.I., 1989, Review of research relevant to the conservation of shallow water tropical marine ecosystems. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Ann. Rev. 27, 337-414.
Hawkins, J.P., Roberts, C.M., 1992, Effects of recreational SCUBA diving on fore-reef slope communities of coral reefs. Biol. Conserv. 62, 171-178. CrossRef
Hawkins, J.P., Roberts, C.M., 1993, Effects of recreational SCUBA diving on coral reefs: trampling on reef-flat communities. J. Appl. Ecol. 30, 25-30. CrossRef
Hawkins, J.P., Roberts, C.M., 1994, The growth of coastal tourism in the Red Sea: present and future effect on coral reefs. Ambio 23, 503-508.
Hawkins, J.P., Roberts, C.M., 1997, Estimating the carrying capacity of coral reef for scuba diving. Proc. 8th Int. Coral Reef Symp. 2, 1923-1926.
Hawkins, J.P., Roberts, C.M., VanHof, T., deMeyer, K., Tratalos, J., Aldam, C., 1999, Effects of recreational scuba diving on Caribbean coral and fish communities. Conserv. Biol 13, 888-897. CrossRef
Hodgson, G., 1999, A global assessment of human effects on coral reefs. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 38, 345-355. CrossRef
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., 1999, Climate change, coral bleaching and the future of the world's coral reefs. Mar. Freshw. Res. 50, 839-866. CrossRef
Hourigan T.F., Tricas T.C., Reese E.S., 1988, Coral Reef Fishes as Indicators of Environmental Stress in Coral Reefs. In: Soule, D. F., Kleppel, G. S. (Eds.), Marine Organisms as Indicators. Springer-Verlag, pp. 107-135.
Hudson, J.H., Goodwin, W.B., 2001, Assessment of vessel grounding injury to coral reef and seagrass habitats in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Florida: protocol and methods. Bull. Mar. Sci. 69, 509-516.
Hudson, J.H., Shinn, E.A., Robbin, D.M., 1982, Effects of offshore oil drillings on Philippine reef corals. Bull. Mar. Sci. 32, 890-908.
Hughes, T.P., 1989, Community structure and diversity of coral reefs: the role of history. Ecology 70, 275-279. CrossRef
Hughes, T.P., 1994, Catastrophes, phase shifts and large scale degradation of a Caribbean coral reef. Science 265, 1547-1551. CrossRef
Hughes, T.P., Connell, J.H., 1999, Multiple stressors on coral reefs: a long-term perspective. Limnol Oceanogr 44, 932-940. CrossRef
Hughes, T.P., Baird, A., Belwood, D.R., Card, M., Connolly, S.R., Folke, C., Grosberg, R., Hunte, W., Wittenberg, M., 1992, Effects of eutrophication and sedimentation on juvenile corals. II Settlement. Mar. Biol. 114, 625-631.
Hutchings, P., 1986, Biological destruction of coral reefs: a review. Coral Reefs 4, 239-252. CrossRef
Jackson, J.B.C., Cubit, J.D., Keller, B.D., Batista, V., Burns, K., Caffey, H.M., Caldwell, R.L., Garrity, S.D., Getter, C.D., Gonzalez, C., Guzman, E.M. Kaufmann, K.W. Knap, A.H. Levings, S.C. Marshall, M.J. Steger, R., Thompson, R.C., Weil, E., 1989, Ecological effects of a major oil spill on Panamanian coastal marine communities. Science 243, 37-44. CrossRef
Jackson, J.B.C., Kirby, M., Berger, W., Bjorndal, K., Botsford, L., Bourque, B., Bradbury, R., Cooke, R., Erlandson, J., Estes, J., Hughes, T., Kidwell, S., Lange, C., Lenihan, H., Pandolfi, J., Peterson, C., Steneck, R., Tegner, M., Warner, R., 2001, Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystem. Science 293, 629-638. CrossRef
Jameson S.C., 1998, Twelve reefs at risk: red Sea Riviera. In: Bryant D., Burke L., Mc Manus J., Spalding M. (Eds.), Reefs at risk: a map based indicator of potential threats of the world's coral reefs. World Resources Institute, Washington DC.
Jameson, S.C., Ammar, M.S., Saadalla, E., Mostafa, H.M., Riegl, B., 1999, A coral damage index and its application to diving sites in the Egyptian Red Sea. Coral Reefs 18, 333-339. CrossRef
Jameson, S.C., Erdmann, M.V., Karr, J.R., Potts, K.W., 2001, Charting a course toward diagnostic monitoring: a continuing review of coral reef attributes and a research strategy for creating coral reef indexes of biotic integrity. Bull. Mar. Sc. 69, 701-744.
Johannes, R.E., Maragos, J.E., Coles, S.L., 1972, Oil damaged corals exposed to air. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 3, 29-30. CrossRef
Johannes R.E., Riepen M., 1995, Environmental, Economic, and Social implications of the live reef fish trade in Asia and the Western Pacific. Report to the Nature Conservancy and the South Pacific Forum Fisheries Agency.
Jope K.L., 2001, An approach to identifying “vital signs” of ecosystem health. In: Harmon D. (Ed.), Proc. 11th Conf. Research and resource management in parks and on public lands, pp. 399-406.
Joyce, K.E., Phinn, S.R., 2002, Bi-directional reflectance of corals. Int. J. Remote Sensing 23, 389-394. CrossRef
Karlson, R.H., Hurd, L.E., 1993, Disturbance, coral reef communities, and changing ecological paradigms. Coral Reefs 12, 117-125. CrossRef
Kay, A.M., Liddle, M.J., 1989, Impact of human trampling in different zones of a coral reef flat. Environ. Manage. 4, 509-520. CrossRef
Kinsey, D.W., 1985, Metabolism, calcification and carbon production. I. System level studies. Proc. 5th Int. Coral Reef Symp. 4, 505-526.
Kleypas, J.A., Buddemeier, R.W., Gattuso, J.P., 2001, The future of coral reefs in an age of global change. Int. J. Earth Sci. 90, 426-437. CrossRef
Knap, A.H., Sleeter, T.D., Dodge, R.E., Wyers, S.C., Frith, H.E., Smith, S.R., 1983, The effects of oil spills and dispersant use on corals. Oil Petrochem. Pollut. 1, 157-169. CrossRef
Knutson, T.R., Tuleya, R.E., Kurihara, Y., 1998, Simulated increase of hurricane intensities in a CO2 warmed climate. Science 279, 1018-1019. CrossRef
Kojis, B.L., Quinn, N.J., 2001, The importance of regional differences in hard coral recruitment rates for determining the need for coral restoration. Bull. Mar. Sc. 69, 967-974.
Laist, D.W., 1987, Overview of the biological effects of lost and discarced plastic debris in the marine environment. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 18, 319-326. CrossRef
Lewis, J.B., 1971, Effects of crude oil and oil spill dispersant on reef corals. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2, 59-62. CrossRef
Lewis, A.R., 1997, Effects of experimental coral disturbance on the structure of fish community on large patch reefs. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 161, 37-50. CrossRef
Lewis, A.R., 1998, Effects of experimental coral disturbance on the population dynamic of fishes on large patch reefs. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 230, 91-110. CrossRef
Liddle, M.J., Kay, A.M., 1987, Resistance, survival and recovery of trampled coral on the Great Barrier Reef. Biol. Conserv. 42, 1-18. CrossRef
Littler, M.M., Littler, D.S., 1999, Disturbances due to cyclone Gavin parallel those caused by a ship grounding. Coral Reefs 18, 146. CrossRef
Loya, Y., 1976, Recolonization of Red Sea corals affected by natural catastrophes and man-made perturbations. Ecology 57, 278-289. CrossRef
Loya, Y., Rinkevitch, B., 1980, Effects of oil pollution on coral reef communities. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 3, 167-180. CrossRef
Loya Y., Rinkevitch B., 1987, Effects of petroleum hydrocarbons on corals. In: Salvat B (Ed.), Human impacts on coral reefs: facts and recommendations. Antenne Museum EPHE, French Polynesia, pp. 91-102.
Luckhurst, B., Luckhurst, K., 1978, Diurnal space utilization in coral reef communities. Mar. Biol. 49, 325-332. CrossRef
Marszaleck D.S., 1981a, Sewage and eutrophication. In: Salvat B. (Ed.), Human impacts on coral reefs: facts and recommendations. Antenne Museum EPHE, French Polynesia, pp. 77-90.
Marszaleck, D.S., 1981b, Impact of dredging on a subtropical reef community, southeast Florida, USA. Proc. 4th Int. Coral Reef Symp. 1, 147-153.
McAllister, D.E., 1988, Environmental, economic and social costs of coral reef destruction in the Philippines. Galaxea 7, 161-178.
McManus, J.W., Nanola, C.L., Reyes, R.B., 1997, Effects of some destructive fishing methods on coral cover and potential rates of recovery. Environ. Manage. 21, 69-78. CrossRef
Meesters, E.H., Bak, R.P.M., 1993, Effects of coral bleaching on tissue regeneration potential and colony survival. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 96, 189-198. CrossRef
Mergner, H., 1981, Man-made influences on and natural changes in the settlement of the Aqaba reefs (Red Sea). Proc. 4th Int. Coral Reef Symp. 1, 193-207.
Moberg, F., Folke, C., 1999, Ecological goods and services of coral reef ecosystems. Ecol. Econ. 29, 215-233. CrossRef
Morris D.W., 2003, Toward an ecological synthesis: a case for habitat selection. Oecologia 136: 1-13.
Mumby, P.J., Chisholm, J.R.M., Clark, C.D., Hedley, J.D., Jaubert, J., 2001, A bird-eye view of the health of coral reefs. Nature 413, 36. CrossRef
Munro J.L., Parrish J.D., Talbot F.H., 1987, The biological effects of intensive fishing upon coral reef communities. In: Salvat B. (Ed.), Human impacts on coral reefs: facts and recommendations. Antenne Museum EPHE, French Polynesia, pp. 41-49.
Naim, O., 1993, Seasonal responses of a fringing reef community to eutrophication (Reunion island, Western Indian Ocean). Mar. Ecol. Prog . Ser. 99, 307-315.
Naim O., Cuet P., Mangar V., 2000, Coral reefs of the Mascarene archipelago. In: McClanahan T.R., Sheppard C., Obura D.O. (Eds.), Coral reefs of the Indian Ocean: their Ecology and Conservation, Oxford University Press, pp. 353-381.
Neil, D., 1990, Potential of corals stress due to sediment resuspension and deposition by reef walkers. Biol. Conserv. 52, 221-227. CrossRef
Nugues, M.M., Roberts, C.M., 2003, Partial mortality in massive reef corals as an indicator of sediment stress on coral reefs. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 46, 314-323. CrossRef
Nyström M., Folke C., Moberg F., 2000, Coral reef disturbance and resilience in a human-dominated environment. Trends Ecol. Evol. 413-417.
Nyström, M., Folke, C., 2001, Spatial resilience of coral reefs. Ecosystems 4, 406-417.
Obura, D.O., 2005, Resilience and climate change: lessons from coral reefs and bleaching in the Western Indian Ocean. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 63, 353-372. CrossRef
O'Neill, R.V., Johnson, A.R., King, A.W., 1989, A hierarchical framework for the analysis of scale. Landscape Ecol. 3, 193-205. CrossRef
O'Neill, R.V., 2001, Is it time to bury the ecosystem concept? (with full military honors, of course!). Ecology 82, 3275–3284.
Öhman M.C., Rajasuriya A., Svensson S. 1998, The use of butterflyfishes (Chaetodontidae) as bio-indicators of habitat structure and human disturbance. Ambio 27, 708-716.
Palandro, D., Andréfouët, S., Dustan, P., Muller-Karger, F.E., 2003, Change detection in coral reef communities using the IKONOS sensor and historic aerial photographs. Int. J. Remote Sensing 24, 873-878. CrossRef
Pastorok, R.A, Bilyard, G.R., 1985, Effects of sewage pollution on coral-reef communities. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 21, 175-189. CrossRef
Pandofi, J., Bradbury, R., Sala, E., Hughes, T., Bjorndal, K., Cooke, R., McArdle, D., McClenahan, L., Newman, M., Paredes, G., Warner, R., Jackson, J., 2003, Global trajectories of long-term decline of coral reef ecosystems. Science 301, 955-958. CrossRef
Pauly, D.G., Silvestre, G., Smith, I.R., 1989, On development fisheries and dynamite: a brief review of tropical fisheries management. Nat. Res. Model. 3, 307-329. CrossRef
Peyrot-Claussade, M., Le Campion-Alsumard, T., Harmelin-Vivien, M., Romano, JC., Chazotte, V., Pari, N., Le Campion, J., 1995, La bioérosion dans le cycle des carbonates: essai de quantification des processus en Polynésie française. Bull. Soc. Géol. France 166, 85-94.
Pickett S.T.A., White P.S., 1985, Patch dynamics: a synthesis. In: Pickett, S.T.A., White, P.S. (Eds.), The ecology of natural disturbance and patch dynamics. Academic Press, New York, pp. 371-384.
Pickett S.T.A., Kolasa J., Armesto J.J., Collins S.L., 1989, The ecological concept of disturbance and its expression at various hierarchical levels. Oikos 54, 129-136.
Polunin, N.V.C., Halim, M.K., Kvalvagnaes, K., 1983, Bali Barat: an Indonesian marine protected area and its resources. Biol. Conserv. 25, 171-191. CrossRef
Porcher M., 1993, Intertropical coastal and coral reef areas and their development: practical guide, study methodologies, technical recommendations. Ministère de l'Environnement, Paris.
Quinn, J.F., Dunham, A.E., 1993, On hypothesis testing in ecology and evolution. Am. Nat. 122, 602-617. CrossRef
Randall J.E., 1987, Collecting reef fishes for aquaria. In: Salvat B (ed) Human impacts on coral reefs: facts and recommendations. Antenne Museum EPHE, French Polynesia, pp. 29-39.
Rapport, D.J., Regier, H.A., Hutchinson, T.C., 1985, Ecosystem behavior under stress. Am. Nat. 125, 617-640. CrossRef
Ray C.G., 1988, Ecological diversity in coastal zones and oceans. In: Wilson E.O. (Ed.), Biodiversity, National Academic Press, Washington DC.
Reese, E.S., 1981, Predation on corals by fishes of the family Chaetodontidae: implications for conservation and management of coral rreef ecosystems. Bull. Mar. Sci. 31, 594-604.
Reimer, A.A., 1975, Effects of crude oil on corals. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 6, 39-43. CrossRef
Richmond R.H., 1997, Reproduction and recruitment in corals: critical links in the persistence of reefs. Chapman and Hall, New York, pp. 175-197.
Riegl, B., Luke, K.E., 1998, Ecological parameters of dynamited reefs in the northern Red Sea and their relevance to reef rehabilitation. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 37, 488-498. CrossRef
Riegl, B., Velmirov, B., 1991, How many damaged corals in Red Sea reef systems? A quantitative survey. Hydrobiologia 216-217, 249-256. CrossRef
Rinkevitch, B., 1995, Restoration strategy for coral reefs damaged by recreational activities: the use of sexual and asexual recruits. Restoration Ecol. 3, 241-251. CrossRef
Rinkevitch B., Loya Y., 1989, Reproduction in regenerating colonies of the coral Stylophora pistillata. In: Spanier E., Steinberger Y., Luria M. (Eds.), Environmental quality and ecosystem stability. ISEQES, Jerusalem, pp. 257-265.
Risk, M., 1972, Fish diversity on a coral reef in the Virgin Islands. Atoll Res. Bull. 153, 1-16. CrossRef
Roberts, C.M., Ormond, R.F., 1987, Habitat complexity and coral reef diversity and abundance on Red Sea fringing reefs. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 41, 1-8. CrossRef
Rogers, S., Gilnack, M., Fitz, C., 1983, Monitoring of coral reefs with linear transects: a case storm damage. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 66, 285-300. CrossRef
Rubec, P.J., 1988, The need for conservation and management of Philippine coral reefs. Environ. Biol. 23, 141-154. CrossRef
Saila, S.B., Kocic, V.L., Mac Manus, J.W., 1993, Modelling the effects of destructive fishing practices on tropical coral reefs. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 94, 51-60. CrossRef
Salvat B., 1987, Dredging in coral reefs. In: Salvat B. (Ed), Human impacts on coral reefs: facts and recommendations. Antenne Museum EPHE, French Polynesia, pp. 166-184.
Salvat, B., Vergonzanne, G., Galzin, R., Richard, G., Chevalier, J.P., Ricard, M., Renaud-Mornant, J., 1979, Conséquences écologiques des activités d'une zone d'extraction de sable corallien dans le lagon de Moorea (île de la Société, Polynésie Française). Cah. Indo-Pacif. 1, 83-126.
Salvat, B., Chancerelle, Y., Schrimm, M., Morancy, R., Porcher, M., Aubanel, A., 2002, Restauration d'une zone corallienne dégradée et implantation d'un jardin corallien à Bora Bora, Polynésie Française. Rev. Ecol. 9, 81-96.
Sano, M., Shimuzu, M. Nose, Y., 1984, Changes in structure of coral reef fish communities by destruction of hermatypic corals: observational and experimental views. Pac. Sci. 38, 51-79.
Shepherd, A.R., Warwick, R.M., Clarke, R.D., Brown, B.E., 1992, An analysis of fish community responses to coral mining in the Maldives. Environ. Biol. Fish 33, 367-380. CrossRef
Smith S.V., 1985, Coral reef calcification. In: Barnes D.J. (Ed.), Perspectives on coral reefs. Brian Clouston, A.C.T., Australia, pp. 240-247.
Stejskal, I.V., 2000, Obtaining approvals for oil and gas projects in shallow water marine areas in western Australia using an environmental risk assessment framework. Spill Sci. Tech. Bull. 6, 69-76. CrossRef
Thomason, J., Roberts, C.M., 1992, What is a healthy reef? Reef Encounter 11, 8-9.
Tilmant J.T., 1987, Impacts of recreational activities on coral reefs. In: Salvat B. (Ed.), Human impacts on coral reefs: facts and recommendations. Antenne Museum EPHE, French Polynesia, pp. 195-214.
Tratalos, J.A., Austin, T.J., 2001, Impacts of recreational SCUBA diving on coral communities of the Caribbean island of Grand Cayman. Biol. Conserv. 102, 67-75. CrossRef
Underwood, A.J., Peterson, C.H., 1988, Towards an ecological framework for investigating pollution. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 46, 227-234. CrossRef
Van Veghel, M.L., Bak, R.P., 1994, Reproductive characteristics of the polymorphic Caribbean reef building coral Monastrea annularis. III. Reproduction in damaged and regenerating colonies. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 109, 229-233. CrossRef
Veron J.E., 1986, Corals of Australia and the Indo-Pacific. Angus Robertson Publishers, Australia.
Veron J.E., 2000, Corals of the world. Australian Inst Mar Sci, Townsville, Australia.
Ward, S., Harrison, P., 2000, Changes in gametogenesis and fecundity of acroporid corals that were exposed to elevated nitrogen and phosphorus during the ENCORE experiment. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 246, 179-221. CrossRef
Wells S.M., Alcala A.C., 1987, Collecting of corals and shells. In: Salvat, B. (Ed.), Human impacts on coral reefs: facts and recommendations. Antenne Museum EPHE, French Polynesia, pp. 13-27.
White A.T., 1987, Effects of construction activity on coral reef and lagoon systems. In: Salvat B. (Ed.), Human impacts on coral reefs: facts and recommendations. Antenne Museum EPHE, French Polynesia, pp. 185-193.
White, T.J., Fouda, M.M, Rajasuriya, A., 1997, Status of reefs in south Asia, Indian Ocean and Middle East seas (Red Sea and Persian Gulf). Proc. 8th Int. Coral Reef Symp. 1, 301-306.
Williams D.M. 1986, Temporal variation in the structure of reef slope fish communities (central Great Barrier Reef): Short-term effects of Acanthaster planci infestation. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 28, 157-164.
Williams, I.D., Polunin, N.V.C., 2000, Differences between protected and unprotected Caribbean reefs in attributes preferred by dive tourists. Environ. Conserv. 27, 382-391. CrossRef
Wolanski, E., Pickard, G.L., Ripp, D.L., 1984, River plumes, coral reefs and mixing in the Gulf of Papua and the northern Great Barrier Reef. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 18, 291-314. CrossRef
Woodland, D.J., Hooper, J.N.A., 1977, The effect of trampling on coral reefs. Biol. Conserv. 11, 1-4. CrossRef
Yamano, H., Tamura, M., Kunii, Y., Hidaka, M., 2003, Spectral reflectance as a potential tool for detecting stressed corals. Galaxea 5, 1-10.
Zakai, D., Levy, O., Chadwick-Furman, N.E., 2000, Experimental fragmentation reduces sexual reproductive output by reef-building coral Pocillopora damicornis. Coral Reefs 19, 185-188. CrossRef
Zakai, D., Chadwick-Furman, N.E., 2002, Impacts of intensive recreational diving on reef corals at Eilat, northern Red Sea. Biol. Conserv. 105, 179-187. CrossRef