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India Before and After the Right of Passage Case

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 May 2014

Prabhakar SINGH
Prabhakar SINGH*
Affiliation:
National University of Singapore, Singaporepsingh@nus.edu.sg
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Abstract

The Right of Passage case flagged off India's adversarial tryst with international law, in which Portugal had argued for the validity of a 1779 treaty signed with the Marathas. India had denied its existence and interpretation. Within the UN Charter, India's subsequent assimilation of Goa constituted illegal invasion, with which the Indian Supreme Court disagreed. Subsequently, Britain deployed its colonial de jure distinction by refusing to recognize India's control of Goa. However, for Nehru, Goa was “a symbol of decadent colonialism trying to hold on”. The Right of Passage case profoundly shaped India's post-colonial foreign policy by coupling India's body politic with its judiciary. Since then, the Lotus case continues to enamour the Indian government. This paper considers the views of the Indian government, judiciary, and publicists to examine whether India has been able to advance a specific approach to international law.

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Articles
Information
Asian Journal of International Law , Volume 5 , Issue 1 , January 2015 , pp. 176 - 208
Copyright
Copyright © Asian Journal of International Law 2014 

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Footnotes

*

PhD Candidate and President's Graduate Fellow, Faculty of Law, National University of Singapore. This paper owes its birth to an invitation from Pasha Hsieh to lecture at the Singapore Management University School of Law in October 2012. I am indebted to Professor M. Sornarajah, three peer reviewers engaged by the Journal, and Victor Kattan, for their constructive comments. I am particularly grateful to the second and third reviewers for their detailed but pointed comments that have immensely improved the paper. Subsequently, in the “Law in a Changing Transnational World” Workshop on 30−31 October 2013 at the Zvi-Meitar Center for Advanced Legal Studies, Faculty of Law, Tel-Aviv University, Israel, I presented parts of the arguments in the paper. I am grateful to Professor Alon Harel for his remarks, Avinoam Cohen for moderating, and Olga Frishman and Eldar Haber for their untiring help in facilitating my participation in the Tel-Aviv Workshop.

References

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34. Case Concerning Right of Passage over Indian Territory (Portugal v. India) (Merits), Judgment of 12 April 1960, [1960] I.C.J. Rep. 6 at 38 [Right of Passage].

35. N.P. NAYAR, “Nationalism as a Factor in India's Foreign Policy” (1957) 12 Indian Yearbook of International Affairs 433. Cf. CHIMNI, B.S., “Mapping Indian Foreign Economic Policy” (2010) 47 International Studies 163–187CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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39. Early writers were BANDYOPADHYAY, P., International Law and Custom in Ancient India (Calcutta: Calcutta University Press, 1920)Google Scholar; RUBEN, W., “Inter-State Relations in Ancient India and Kautalya's Artashasta” (1955) 4 Indian Yearbook of International Affairs 137Google Scholar; and NAWAZ, M.K., “The Law of Nations in Ancient India” (1957) 6 Indian Yearbook of International Affairs 172Google Scholar. See further ALEXANDROWICZ, C.H., “International Law in India” (1952) 1 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 289 at 300Google Scholar; MANI, V.S., “An Indian Perspective on the Evolution of International Law on the Threshold of the Third Millennium” (2004) 9 Asian Yearbook of International Law 31Google Scholar; Rao, , supra note 29 at 33−65CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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Saving of laws with respect to permanent residents and their rights.—Notwithstanding anything contained in this Constitution, no existing law in force in the State of Jammu and Kashmir, and no law hereafter enacted by the Legislature of the State,—

  1. (a)

    (a) defining the classes of persons who are, or shall be, permanent residents of the State of Jammu and Kashmir; or

  2. (b)

    (b) conferring on such permanent residents any special rights and privileges or imposing upon other persons any restrictions as respects—

  1. (i)

    (i) employment under the State Government;

  2. (ii)

    (ii) acquisition of immovable property in the State;

  3. (iii)

    (iii) settlement in the State; …

shall be void on the ground that it is inconsistent with or takes away or abridges any rights conferred on the other citizens of India by any provision of this Part.

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91. Agreement on Trade and Intercourse Between Tibet Region of China and India, 29 April 1954, 299 U.N.T.S. 57 at 70 (Registered by India on 28 April 1958).

92. Ibid., Preamble.

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95. Upendra BAXI, “Some Remarks on Eurocentrism and the Law of Nations” in Anand, supra note 5 at 6.

96. ALEXANDROWICZ, C.H., “The Discriminatory Clauses in South Asian Treaties in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries” (1957) 6 Indian Yearbook of International Affairs 126 at 135−140Google Scholar. It is interesting to note that Alexandrowicz, the year the ICJ ruled in the Right of Passage preliminary objection, discussed in detail the treaties signed by the Portuguese, the French, the Dutch, and the British. When the merits ruling came out in 1960, the Dissenting Opinion of Moreno Quintana had visible footprints of Alexandrowicz's arguments. Judge Quintana wrote: “We must not forget that India, as the territorial successor, was not acquiring the territory for the first time, but was recovering an independence lost long since.” See Right of Passage, Dissenting Opinion of Moreno Quintana, supra note 34 at 95.

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98. Ibid.

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102. Ibid.

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111. Sovereignty over Pedra Branca / Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks and South Ledge (Malaysia/Singapore), [2008] I.C.J. Rep. 12.

112. Malaysia chose J. Dugard and Singapore chose P.S. Rao; ibid., at 14.

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114. Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary in the Gulf of Maine Area, (Canada/United States), Judgment, [1984] I.C.J. Rep. 246 [Gulf of Maine].

115. ABI-SAAB, Georges, “The International Court as a World Court” in Vaughan LOWE and Malgosia FITZMAURICE, eds., Fifty Years of the International Court of Justice: Essays in Honour of Sir Robert Jennings (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), at 9Google Scholar.

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126. Ibid., at 23.

127. Ibid. See Constitution, supra note 7.

128. 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 23 May 1969, 1155 U.N.T.S. 331, 8 I.L.M. 679.

129. HIDAYATULLAH, M., “Foreword” in S.K. AGRAWALA, ed., Essays on the Law of Treaties: With Special Reference to India (Mumbai: Orient Longman, 1969)Google Scholar, vi. See C.G. RAGHAVAN, “Treaties Making Power Under The Constitution of India” in Agrawala, ibid., 217 at 218. However, in 1974 India signed up to the compulsory jurisdiction of the ICJ. See Bimal N. PATEL, “The International Court of Justice and India” in Patel, supra note 29 at 289−318.

130. Swaran SINGH, Minister of External Affairs, India, “Declarations Recognizing the Jurisdiction of the Court as Compulsory” (18 September 1974), online: ICJ 〈http://www.icj-cij.org/jurisdiction/index.php?p1=5&p2=1&p3=3&code=IN〉.

131. National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution, “A Consultation Paper on Treaty-Making Power Under Our Constitution” (January 2001), online: Ministry of Law & Justice 〈http://lawmin.nic.in/ncrwc/finalreport/v2b2-3.htm〉 at para. 45.

132. Ibid.

133. Ibid.

134. Ibid.

135. Ibid., at para. 48.

136. Ibid.

137. Ibid., at para. 45.

138. Novartis AG v. Union of India, MANU/SC/0281/2013 at para. 59 [Novartis]. See in detail Chimni, supra note 6 at 43. See also CHIMNI, B.S., “International Institutions Today: An Imperial Global State in the Making” (2004) 15 European Journal of International Law 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar; CHIMNI, B.S., “Critical Theory and International Economic Law: A TWAIL Perspective” in John LINARELLI, ed., Research Handbook on Global Justice and International Economic Law (London: Edward Elgar, 2013), 251 at 255Google Scholar.

139. Right of Passage, Merits, supra note 34 at 45.

140. Ibid., at 46

141. Ibid.

142. Ibid.

143. Case Concerning Right of Passage over Indian Territory (Portugal v. India) (Preliminary Objections), [1957] I.C.J. Rep.125 at 128.

144. Ibid., at 130.

145. Ibid., at 135.

146. Right of Passage supra note 34 at 12.

147. Ibid., at 24.

148. “Letter of Sir C. Stirling, on April 30, 1960, No. 51 (1012/5/60, Portuguese Rights of Passage Over Indian Territory: Judgement of the International Court at The Hague FO 371/152541” in Foreign Office Files for India, Pakistan and Afghanistan 1947−64 documents (1960), at para. 6. These letters were declassified in 1991. It then becomes important to look into the change in the constitution of the bench between 1958, the year of preliminary judgment and 1960 when the merits’ judgment came out. The British member of the Court who sat in the preliminary rulings but who subsequently fell ill was Judge Lauterpacht. The Latin American judge implicated by the Portuguese Minister was José Gustavo Guerrero, a diplomat from El Salvador, who served as the last president of the PCIJ from 1937 to 1945 as well as the first president of the ICJ from 1946 to 1949. He remained a member of the Court until his death in 1958.

149. Right of Passage, supra note 34 at 25.

150. Ibid., at 38.

151. Ibid., at 23.

152. Professor Alexandrowicz in the past has maintained that an attempt was made in the Right of Passage proceedings to contest the validity of the treaty by our general notions of treaty law. The ICJ emphasized in its judgment that an eighteenth-century treaty must be interpreted on the basis of legal notions peculiar to both parties and in force at the time of its conclusion. See ALEXANDROWICZ, C.H., “Doctrinal Aspects of The Universality of the Law of Nations” (1961) 37 British Yearbook International Law 506 at 512Google Scholar. See also Anand, , “Editor's Note”, supra note 5Google Scholar at xii; Anand, , supra note 117 at 58CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Chimni, , supra note 6 at 34Google Scholar.

153. Right of Passage, supra note 34.

154. Patel, , supra note 29 at 313Google Scholar.

155. See ANAND, R.P., “The International Court of Justice and the Development of International Law” (1965) 7 International Studies 228CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

156. Nehru, , supra note 9Google Scholar.

157. Remedios Monterio v. State of Goa, 26 March 1969, A.I.R. 1970 SC 329 at para. 3.

158. Ibid.

159. Ibid., at para. 25.

160. FALK, Richard A., “International Law and the United States Role in the Viet Nam War” (1966) 75 Yale Law Journal 1122CrossRefGoogle Scholar; CHIMNI, B.S., “Towards a Third World Approach to Non-Intervention: Through the Labyrinth of Western Doctrine” (1980) 20 Indian Journal of International Law 243Google Scholar.

161. WRIGHT, Quincy, “The Goa Incident” (1962) 56 American Journal of International Law 617CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See DUBE, Georges, “Le Rapport Entre la Politique et le Droit dans l'Ordre International” (1963) 5 Cahiers de Droit 47CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

162. UNGA, Complaint by Portugal (Goa), Decisions of 18 December 1961, 987th meeting and 998th meeting (S/5030), paras. 2−10, 98, 128−9.

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164. Keith, , supra note 19 at 17Google Scholar.

165. U.N.S.C.O.R., 16th Session, 987th mtg., para. 40, U.N. Doc. No., S/PV. 987 (1961). Such accusations were supported by Indian judges like Guha Roy, supra note 80 at 879, who stated: “What again does Brierly mean by saying that the theory does not introduce any fiction of law?”

166. Keith, , supra note 19 at 17Google Scholar. As late as 1974, Sinha had asked whether self-determination had indeed become an established principle of international law. See SINHA, S. Prakash, “Has Self-Determination Become a Principle of International Law Today?” (1974) 14 Indian Journal of International Law 332Google Scholar.

167. See “Internal Political Affairs of Goa, Daman and Diu” in FCO 37/266, Foreign Office Files India, Pakistan and Afghanistan: 1965−1971 (1967−1968). Portugal has been concerned about the self-determination of its former colonies. Another example of such a concern is Case Concerning East Timor (Portugal v. Australia), [1995] I.C.J. Rep. 90.

168. “Letter of W.P. Mumford, 3rd October, 1968”, ibid., at 4.

169. “Letter of J.H. Fawcett of 27 June 1968”, ibid., at para. 2.

170. “C.W. Dyment's Letter of May 27, 1968”, ibid., at para. 2.

171. “F.A. Vallat's Letter of May 6, 1968”, ibid., para. 2.

172. Ibid.

173. Ibid.

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175. HIGGINS, Rosalyn, “Human Rights: Some Questions of Integrity” (1989) 15 Commonwealth Law Bulletin 598 at 608Google Scholar. Indian jurist Nariman also agreed that “[t]he sovereignty of the State, as opposed to the concept of the comity of nations, continues to be the single gravest threat to the human right”. See NARIMAN, Fali, “International Human Rights and Sovereignty of States: Role and Responsibility of Lawyers” (1997) 21 Fordham International Law Journal 541 at 547Google Scholar.

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180. Accordance with International Law of the Unilateral Declaration of Independence in Respect of Kosovo (Request for Advisory Opinion), Advisory Opinion of 22 July 2010, [2010] I.C.J. Rep. 403 at 408.

181. Right of Passage (Preliminary Objections), supra note 143 at 125.

182. Joseph D'Souza v. State of Bombay, MANU/SC/0007/1956 at para. 6.

183. Masthan Sahib v. Chief Commissioner, Pondicherry, A.I.R. 1962 SC 797 at para. 44.

184. Ibid., at para. 45.

185. Ibid. From a juristic point of view, a rigid reading of Masthan Sahib v. Chief Commissioner led to the ratio in Electronics Corporation of India Ltd. v. Commissioner of Income Tax, MANU/SC/0331/1989, which suggests that Parliament's powers to legislate refers only to the competence to enact laws with respect to aspects or causes that occur, arise, or exist, or may be expected to do so, solely within India.

186. Union of India v. Sukumar Sengupta, MANU/SC/0300/1990 at para. 16.

187. MISRA, K.P., India's Policy of Recognition of States and Government (London: Allied Publishers, 1966) at 186Google Scholar.

188. Ibid., at 187.

189. The Bangladesh Proclamation of Independence of April 10, 1971; The Indian Prime Minister's Statement Recognizing the Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh; The Texts of U.N. Security Council Resolutions 303 (1971) and 307 (1971); The Text of U.N. General Assembly Resolution, 2793 (XXVI) (1972) 11 I.L.M. 119.

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191. Agreement on the Repatriation of Prisoners of War and Civilian Internees, April 9, 1974, New Delhi (1974) 13 I.L.M. 501 at 502.

192. While the birth of Pakistan led to In Re: The Berubari Union and Exchange of Enclaves, A.I.R. 1960 SC 845, the birth of Bangladesh led to the Sukumar Sengupta case, supra note 186; the case was even called Berubari II.

193. “Written Statement of the People's Republic of China”, supra note 79 at 4.

194. Additional District Magistrate, Jabalpur v. Shivakant Shukla, AIR 1976 SC 1207.

195. Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala, MANU/SC/0445/1973 [Kesavananda]. See FIKFAK, Veronika, “International Law Before English and Asian Courts: Finding the Judicial Role in the Separation of Powers” (2013) 3 Asian Journal of International Law 271 at 288Google Scholar.

196. Kesavananda, supra note 195 at para. 164.

197. The Republic of Italy thr. Ambassador v. Union of India, MANU/SC/0059/2013 at para. 33. See HOLLIS, Duncan, “The Case of Enrica Lexie: Lotus Redux?” Opinio Juris (17 June 2012)Google Scholar, online: Opinio Juris 〈http://opiniojuris.org/2012/06/17/the-case-of-enrica-lexie-lotus-redux/〉.

198. Lotus, supra note 36 at para. 19.

199. Republic of Italy, supra note 197, at para. 98.

200. Ibid., at para. 33.

201. Ibid., at para. 42.

202. Ibid.

203. Ibid., at para. 69.

204. Ibid., at para. 100. See, however, ALEXANDROWICZ, C.H., “Is India a Federation?” (1954) 3 International & Comparative Law Quarterly 393CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

205. Ibid., at para. 105 (1).

206. Ibid., at para. 101.

207. V.S. MANI, “It's Our Boat, Our Courts” The Hindu (23 March 2013) at para. 13, online: 〈http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/its-our-boat-our-courts/article4538854.ece〉.

208. Novartis, supra note 138 at para. 66. See SINGH, Prabhakar, “Mercantile Metaconstitutionalism: Interpretations of the WTO Treaty and the Developing Countries” (2012) 55 German Yearbook of International Law 465 at 482Google Scholar.

209. Novartis, supra note 138 at para. 65. This battle has been raging for a long time. See OLLIER, Peter, “India's Patent Law Faces New Scrutiny” (2008) 177 Managing Intellectual Property 22Google Scholar; JAYAGOVINDA, A., “The International Patent System and Developing Countries” (1980) 20 Indian Journal of International Law 47Google Scholar.

210. Novartis, supra note 138 at para. 80.

211. Jim Yong KIM, Director, Department of HIV/AIDS of the WHO wrote a letter on 17 December 2004 to the Minister of Health and Family Welfare Government of India, stating that he is (ibid., at para. 76):

hop[ing] that the Indian government will take the necessary steps to continue to account for the needs of the poorest nations that urgently need access to antiretrovirals, without adopting unnecessary restrictions that are not required under the TRIPS Agreement and that would impede access to medicines.

212. Ibid., at para. 4.

213. “India's Novartis Decision”, The New York Times (5 April 2013) at A22.

214. Novartis, supra note 138 at para. 4.

215. Ibid.

216. Ibid., at para. 64.

217. Ibid.

218. Prabhash RANJAN and Deepak RAJU, “Losing Ground to Big Pharma Bit by BIT” The Hindu (6 September 2013) at para. 8, online 〈http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/losing-ground-to-big-pharma-bit-by-bit/article5097623.ece〉.

219. Ibid., A.A. Cançado TRINIDADE, “Domestic Jurisdiction and Exhaustion of Local Remedies: A Comparative Analysis” (1976) 16 Indian Journal of International Law 187.

220. Suvrat RAJU and M.V. RAMANA, “Nuclear Extravagance in Washington” The Hindu (26 September 2013) at paras. 1, 15−16, online: 〈http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/nuclear-extravagance-in-washington/article5168341.ece〉.

221. Novartis, supra note 138 at para. 65.

222. J. NEHRU, “No Change on Basic Policies”, from “Speech in Lok Sabha, 17 September 1955”, supra note 9 at 120.

223. Ibid. 121.

224. Reply to E.M. Sudarsana Natchiappan, “Rajya Sabha, Starred Question No. 273, Parliament Q&A”, online: Ministry of External Affairs, India 〈http://www.meaindia.nic.in/mystart.php?id=220120074〉.

225. DIKSHIT, Sandeep, “No Move to Settle Italian Marines Case” The Hindu (8 October 2013)Google Scholar, online: 〈http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/no-move-to-settle-italian-marines-case/article5211427.ece〉.

226. Quoted in ibid.

227. Right of Passage, supra note 34 at 16.

228. Ibid.

229. VENU, M.K., “At WTO, India Will Face Price Catch” The Hindu (23 July 2013)Google Scholar, online: 〈http://www.thehindu.com/business/Economy/at-wto-india-will-face-price-catch/article4942468.ece〉; Amiti SEN, “Food Security Bill Could Violate India's Subsidy Pledge at WTO” Business Line (7 May 2013), online: 〈http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/food-security-bill-could-violate-indias-subsidy-pledge-at-wto/article4693057.ece〉.

230. “Public Stockholding for Food Security Purposes—Ministerial Decision of 7 December 2013”, Ministerial Conference Ninth Session, Bali, 3−6 December 2013, WT/MIN(13)/38 WT/L/913, online: WTO 〈https://mc9.wto.org/draft-bali-ministerial-declaration〉.

231. Novartis, supra note 138 at para. 59. The Court has also been unnecessarily active in certain matters. In Bhatia International, the Supreme Court actively ruled that Indian courts have the power to order interim measures for arbitration conducted outside India. Bhatia International v. Bulk Trading, 2002, 2 S.C.C. 105. The Court, however, overruled Bhatia in Bharat Aluminium Co. v. Kaiser Aluminium, 2012, 9 S.C.C. 552.

232. “Statement by External Affairs Minister at the General Debate of the 4th United Nations Conference on the Least Developed Countries, Istanbul, May 12, 2011” in Avtar Singh BHASIN, ed., India's Foreign Relations—2011 Documents (New Delhi: Geetika Publishers, 2011), 1847.

233. For instance, speaking during a visit to the World Intellectual Property Organization in Geneva, the Indian Minister for Commerce and Industry, Anand Sharma, defended the Novartis ruling, saying that the court decision was “absolutely justified” under the TRIPS Agreement. See “India Reserves Right to Act on Patents After Novartis Case: Anand Sharma” The Indian Express (9 April 2013), online: 〈http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/india-reserves-right-to-act-on-patents-after-novartis-case-anand-sharma/1099727/〉.

234. See United Nations, “Statement By H.E. Dilma Rousseff, President of the Federative Republic of Brazil, at the Opening of the General Debate of the 68th Session of the United Nations General Assembly” (24 September 2013), online: UN 〈http://gadebate.un.org/sites/default/files/gastatements/68/BR_en.pdf〉.

235. G.V.K. Industries Ltd. v. Income Tax Officer, MANU/SC/0163/2011 at para. 20(5).

236. The Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010, 21 September 2010, online: Ministry of Law and Justice 〈http://lawmin.nic.in/ld/regionallanguages/THE%20CIVIL%20LIABILITY%20OF%20NUCLEAR%20DAMAGE%20ACT,2010.%20(38%20OF2010).pdf〉.

237. Mohit ABRAHAM and M.P. RAM MOHAN, “Don't Waver Now on Nuclear Liability” The Hindu (20 September 2013), online: 〈http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/dont-waver-now-on-nuclear-liability/article5147177.ece〉.

238. Government of India, Department of Atomic Energy, “Answer by the Minister of State For Personnel, Public Grievances & Pensions And Prime Minister's Office to Rajya Sabha Unstarred Question No: 2174”, online: Government of India, Department of Atomic Energy 〈http://www.dae.nic.in/writereaddata/rsus2174.pdf〉 at para. (c).

239. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 17 July 1998, 2187 U.N.T.S. 90 (entered into force 1 July 2002) art. 112.