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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 10 February 2009
The importance of turn-of-the-century Vienna for modern Western civilization is such that it is difficult for any educated person to be unaware of the political and cultural changes taking place in that city at that time. Against a background of social and political disintegration, the intellectual and cultural elite of Vienna—and particularly its younger members—revolted against the rationalistic, legalistic, and moralistic liberalism of nineteenth-century Europe. Parliamentary politics in Vienna yielded to mass politics, increasingly strident in tone and negative in its goal. At the same time rationalist views of human nature were giving way before the psychoanalytic theories of the Viennese Sigmund Freud. Aestheticism became a refuge from life for many of the city's young intellectuals. Its literary men turned inward to study the psychology of the individual or uphold the goal of art for art's sake. The home of Mozart, Beethoven, and the Strausses gave birth at the turn of the century to the first works of Schoenberg. Academic formalism in painting came under attack from the Viennese Secession. And the city of the monumental historical eclecticism of the Ringstrasse gave rise to architectural critics who sought a new architecture expressing modern, not by-gone, life. The very phrase “turn-of-the-century Vienna” conjures up the names of a disparate group of famous—or infamous—giants of modern culture and politics: Freud, Hofmannsthal, Kokoschka, Klimt, Schoenberg, Mahler, Lueger, even the young Hitler.
2 The best recent survey of the Moderna in its literary and nonliterary aspects is Goldstein, Slavko et al. , Povijest hrvatske književnosti [History of Croatian Literature], vol. V, Šicel, Miroslav, Književnost Moderne [Literature of the Moderna], (Zagreb: Liber and Mladost, 1978).Google Scholar A good standard survey also appears in Barac, Antun, Jugoslavenska književnost [Yugoslav Literature], 3rd ed. (Zagreb: Matica Hrvatska, 1963), pp. 218–236.Google Scholar An English-language translation of the latter, sponsored by the Joint Committee on Eastern Europe of the American Council of Learned Societies and the Social Science Research Council, is available under the title, A History of Yugoslav Literature.
3 For the 1869 figures for Vienna, Prague, and Cracow, see Statistisches Jahrbuch für das Jahr 1870. Herausgegeben von der K. K. statistischen Central-Commission (Vienna: K. K. Hof-und Staatsdruckerei, 1872), pp. 7, 10, 13.Google Scholar For the 1900 figures for Vienna and Cracow, see Österreichisches statistisches Handbuch für die im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreiche und Länder. Herausgegeben von der K. K. statistischen Zentralkommission, vol. XX (1901) (Vienna: Verlag der K. K. statistischen Zentralkommission, 1902), p. 6.Google Scholar For the 1869 and 1900 figures for Zagreb, see Šidak, Jaroslav et al. , Povijest hrvatskog naroda g. 1860–1914 [History of the Croatian People, 1860–1914] (Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1968), p. 320Google Scholar, table 2. Because of boundary changes not reflected in the published statistics, the figure for Prague's population in 1900 has been taken from Janáček, Josef, Malé dějiny Prahy [Short History of Prague] (Prague: Orbis, 1967), p. 342, unnumbered graph.Google Scholar
4 Šicel, , Književnost Moderne, pp. 164, 166.Google Scholar
5 “Zagreb i Zagrebi” [Zagreb and Zagrebs], in Pavletić, Vlatko et al. , eds., Pet stoljeća hrvatske književnosti [Five Centuries of Croatian Literature], vol. LXVI, Antun Gustav Matoš, III: Kritike, eseji, studije i članci, polemike, putopisi, feljtoni i impresije [Antun Gustav Matoš, III: Reviews, Essays, Studies and Articles, Polemics, Travelogues, Feuilletons and Impressions], Dragutin Tadijanović and Marijan Matković, eds. (Zagreb: Maltca Hrvatska and Zora, 1967), p. 375.Google Scholar
6 Šidak, et al. , Povijest hrvatskog naroda, p. 321, table 3.Google Scholar
7 Szabo, Gjuro, Stari Zagreb [Old Zagreb] (Zagreb: Knjižara Vlasić i Horvat, 1941), p. 244Google Scholar; Črnja, Zvane, Kulturna historija Hrvatske: Ideje, ličnosti, djela [Cultural History of Croatia: Ideas, Personalities, Works] (Zagreb: Epoha, 1965), p. 532Google Scholar; Šicel, , Književnost Moderne, pp. 23–29.Google Scholar
8 Despot, Miroslava, Industrije gradjanske Hrvatske (1860–1873) [The Industry of Civil Croatia (1860–1873)] (Zagreb: Institut za Historiju Radničkog Pokreta Hrvatske, 1970), pp. 29, 33.Google Scholar
9 Šicel, , Književnost Moderne, pp. 16–17.Google Scholar
10 Ibid., pp. 17–23; Šidak, et al. , Povijest hrvatskog;naroda, pp. 152–155.Google Scholar
11 Historically notable demonstrations in Zagreb before 1903 had occurred in May 1845 during an electoral campaign, in 1883 as a protest against Magyar inscriptions on government buildings, and in 1895 when the student participants were expelled from the university. On these occasions, however, the resort to the streets ceased after a short while. After 1903, demonstrations became a regular occurrence in Zagreb.
12 Fulton, David J., “Croatian Social Democracy and the National Question 1903–1914” (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 1974), pp. 108–110.Google Scholar
13 Ibid., pp. 145–146.
14 Dedijer, Vladimir, The Road to Sarajevo (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1966), pp. 262–276.Google Scholar
15 On the reforms, see Krokar, James P., “Liberal Reform in Croatia, 1872–75: The Beginnings of Modern Croatia under Ban Ivan Mažuranić” (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 1980).Google Scholar
16 Fulton, , “Croatian Social Democracy,” pp. 68, 172.Google Scholar The size of the increased electorate is put at only “around 6%” in Šidak, et al. , Povijest hrvatskog naroda, p. 268.Google Scholar
17 Fulton, , “Croatian Social Democracy,” pp. 13–14Google Scholar; Šidak, et al. , Povijest hrvatskog naroda, pp. 152–155.Google Scholar
18 Dedijer, , The Road to Sarajevo, pp. 262–276.Google Scholar
19 Šicel, , Književnost Moderne, pp. 56–82, especially pp. 71–74.Google Scholar
20 Ibid., pp. 9–10; Barac, , Jugoslavenska književnost, pp. 220–222.Google Scholar
21 On one of the most prominent men in this group, the critic Milan Marjanovič, see Šicel, , Književnost Moderne, pp. 104–108.Google Scholar See also, Ibid., p. 74.
22 One of the most consistent exponents of this position was the critic Branimir Livadić; Ibid., pp. 114–118, as well as p. 74.
23 Barac, , Jugoslavenska književnost, p. 220.Google Scholar
24 Šicel, , Književnost Moderne, pp. 14, 23.Google Scholar
25 Barac, Antun, “Literarne paralele,” [Literary Parallels], in his Književnost i narod (Rasprave i eseji) [Literature and the People (Articles and Essays)] (Zagreb: Matica Hrvatska, 1941), p. 173.Google Scholar
26 Szabo, , Stari Zagreb, pp. 215–217, 219–222, 224–225, 236–241.Google Scholar
27 Ibid., pp 215–216, 219, 221, 224, 236.
28 Bajurin, Ruth, “Architecture, Sculpture and Painting,” in Eterovich, Francis H. and Spalatin, Christopher, Croatia: Land, People, Culture (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1964), p. 324.Google Scholar
29 Szabo, , Stari Zagreb, pp. 229–230.Google Scholar
30 Ibid., pp. 271–272.
31 Šicel, , Književnost Moderne, pp. 31, 33.Google Scholar
32 Enciklopedija Jugoslavie, s.v. “Zajc, Ivan,” by J. As. [Josip Andreis].
33 Ibid.; Širola, Božidar, Hrvatska umjetnička glazba [Croatian Art Music] (Zagreb: Matica Hrvatska, 1942), pp. 140–143Google Scholar; Blom, Eric, ed., Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 5th ed. (London: Macmillan and Co., 1954), IX, 395Google Scholar; The International Cyclopedia of Music and Musicians, 9th ed., s.v. “Zaytz, Giovanni von.”
34 Širola, , Hrvatska umjetnička glazba, pp. 65–66, 114–116, 118–119.Google Scholar
35 kazalište, Hrvatsko narodno, Sto godina opere 1870/71–1970/71 [A Hundred Years of Opera, 1870/71–1970/71] (Zagreb: Grafički Zavod Hrvatske, 1971)Google Scholar, unpaginated (citation comes from second page of book's final section, which is entitled “Glazbeni repertoar HNK”).
36 Through his compositions, Zajc exponentially increased the Croatian-language operatic repertoire, but he did not write the first Croatian opera. That distinction belongs to Vatroslav Lisinski, a talented musical amateur, whose opera Ljubav i zloba [Love and Malice] was first performed in 1846. Zajc was, however, the first to present foreign operas in Zagreb in Croatian translation, beginning with Verdi's Troubadour in 1871. Širola, , Hrvatska umjetnička glazba, pp. 67–71Google Scholar; Sto godina opere, unpaginated (citation comes from third page of the introduction by Aleksander Reiching).
37 Širola, , Hrvatska umjetnička glazba, pp. 143–147.Google Scholar Cf., in English, Fedor Kabalin, “Music,” in Eterovich, and Spalatin, , Croatia, pp. 285–287.Google Scholar
38 Of his twelve hundred compositions, only his 1876 opera Nikola SubićZrinski, a patriotic potboiler, continues to be performed, “more for patriotic reasons than for intrinsic musical value” according to Kabalin. “Music,” p. 285.
39 Širola, , Hrvatska umjetnička glazba, pp. 175–210.Google Scholar The historian was Vjekoslav Klaić, a professor at Zagreb University and author of a six-volume history of the Croats.
40 Kabalin, , “Music,” 297–298Google Scholar; Širola, , Hrvatska umjetnička glazba, pp. 174–175.Google Scholar
41 Sto godina opere, unpaginated (citation comes from the fourth page of the introduction by Aleksander Reiching).
42 Ibid., unpaginated (citation comes from the first four pages of the section entitled “Zagrebački operni umjetnici na inozemnim pozornicima”).
43 Širola, , Hrvatska umjetnička glazba, pp. 124, 126, 144, 222.Google Scholar
44 Šicel, , Književnost Moderne, pp. 24–25.Google Scholar
45 Širola, , Hrvatska umjetnička glazba, p. 200.Google Scholar
46 Ibid., p. 256; Šicel, , Književnost Moderne, p. 34.Google Scholar