Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-s2hrs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-14T10:05:15.610Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Biology versus culture in human behaviour

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

Michael Ruse
Michael Ruse
Affiliation:
Department of Philosophy, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, CanadaN1G 2W1
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Open Peer Commentary
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 4 , Issue 2 , June 1981 , pp. 250 - 251
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1981

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alexander, R. D. (1975) The search for a general theory of behavior. Behavioral Science 20:77–100. [PLV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alexander, R. D. (1979) Darwinism and human affairs. Seattle: University of Washington Press. [HJR, PLV]Google Scholar
Alexander, R. D. & Borgia, G. (1978) Group selection, altruism, and the levels of organization of life. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 9:449–74. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, E. et al. (1975) Letter to the editor. New York Review of Books 22:43–44. [HCP]Google Scholar
Aronson, L. R. (1970) Functional evolution of the forebrain in lower vertebrates. In: Development and evolution of behavior, ed. Aronson, L. R., Tobach, E., Lehrman, D. S. & Rosenblatt, J. S., pp. 75–107. San Francisco: Freeman. [DLE]Google Scholar
Ashby, W. R. (1952) Design for a brain. New York: John Wiley & Sons. [DTC]Google Scholar
Baldwin, J. M. (1900) Mental development in the child and race. New York: Macmillan. [DTC]Google Scholar
Baldwin, J. M. (1902) Development and evolution. London: Macmillan. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Barash, D. P. (1977) Sociobiology and behavior. London: Heinemann. [DLH, HCP]Google Scholar
Barkow, J. H. (1978) Culture and sociobiology. American Anthropologist 80:5–20. [JHB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barkow, J. H. (1980a) Sociobiology: Is this the new theory of human nature? In: Sociobiology examined, ed. Montagu, A., pp. 171–97. New York: Oxford University Press. [JHB]Google Scholar
Barkow, J. H. (1980b) “Altruism and nepotism among the Migili (Koro) of Nigeria's plateau state.” Paper presented at the December 1980 annual meeting of the American Anthropological Association. [JHB]Google Scholar
Barkow, J. H. (1980c) “Biological evolution of culturally patterned behavior.” In: The evolution of human social behavior, ed. Lockard, J. S., pp. 297–318. New York: Elsevier. [JHB]Google Scholar
Bateson, G. (1963) The role of somatic change in evolution. Evolution 17:529–39. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berger, P. L. (1969) The sacred canopy: Elements of a sociological theory of religion. Garden City, NY.: Doubleday. [EER]Google Scholar
Blakemore, C. & van Sluyters, R. C. (1975) Innate and environmental factors in the development of the kitten's visual cortex. Journal of Physiology (London) 248:663–716. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bohannan, P. (1973) Rethinking culture: A project for current anthropologists. Current Anthropology 14:357–72. [EER]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bohannan, P. (1980) The gene pool and the meme pool. Science 80 1:25–28. [EER]Google Scholar
Bolles, R. C. (1970) Species specific defence reactions and avoidance learning. Psychological Review 77:32–48. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonner, J. T. (1965) Size and cycle. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyd, R. & Richerson, P. J. (1980) Sociobiology, culture and economic theory. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 1:97–121. [PJR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyd, R. & Richerson, P. J. (1981) Culture, biology and the evolution of variation between human groups. In: Science and the questions of human equality, ed. Collins, M., Wainer, I. & Bremner, T.. Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science. [PJR]Google Scholar
Boyd, R. & Richerson, P. J. (1981) Multiple parents and nonlinear cultural transmission. Duplicated paper. [DTC, HCP]Google Scholar
Breland, K. & Breland, M. (1966) Animal behaviour. New York: Macmillan. [HCP]Google Scholar
Brockman, H. J.; Grafen, A. & Dawkins, R. (1979) Evolutionary stable nesting strategy in a digger wasp. Journal of Theoretical Biology 77:473–96. [MRi]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buckley, W. & Jones, B. J., eds. (1979) Sociobiology. Behavioral Science 24:1–71. [HCP]Google Scholar
Cain, A. J. & Currey, J. D. (1963) Area effects in Cepea. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, B 246:1–181. [SL]Google Scholar
Campbell, D. T. (1956) Perception as substitute trial and error. Psychological Review 63:330–42. [DTC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, D. T. (1965) Variation and selective retention in socio-cultural evolution. In: Social change in developing areas: A reinterpretation of evolutionary theory, ed. Barringer, H. R., Blanksten, G. I. & Mack, R. W., pp. 19–48. Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman. [DTC, PJR]Google Scholar
Campbell, D. T. (1972) On the genetics of altruism and the counter-hedonic components in human culture. Journal of Social Issues 28:21–37. [DTC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, D. T. (1974) Evolutionary epistemology. In: The philosophy of Karl Popper, vol. I, ed. Schilpp, P. A., pp. 413–63. LaSalle, Ill.: Open Court Publishing Co. [DTC, HCP]Google Scholar
Campbell, D. T. (1974a) “Downward causation” in hierarchically organized biological systems. In: Studies in the philosophy of biology, ed. Dobzhansky, T. & Ayala, F. J., pp. 179–86. London: Macmillan Co. [DTC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, D. T. (1975) On the conflicts between biological and social evolution and between psychology and moral tradition. American Psychologist 30:1103–26. [DTC, SAP, PJR, PLV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, D. T. (1980) The two distinct routes beyond kin selection to ultrasociality: Implications for the humanities and social sciences. Paper presented at the American Anthropological Association meeting, Washington, D.C., 12 5, 1980. [DTC]Google Scholar
Caplan, A. L., ed. (1978) The sociobiology debate. New York: Harper & Row. [HCP]Google Scholar
Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. & Feldman, M. W. (1978) The evolution of continuous variation. III. Joint transmission of genotype, phenotype and environment. Genetics 90:391–425. [DW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chagnon, N. A. (1979) Mate competition, favoring close kin, and village fissioning among the Yanomamo Indians. In: Evolutionary biology and human social behavior, ed. Chagnon, N. A. & Irons, W., pp. 86–132. North Scituate, Mass.: Duxbury Press. [HCP]Google Scholar
Chagnon, N. A. & Irons, W. eds. (1979) Evolutionary biology and human social behavior. North Scituate, Mass.: Duxbury Press. [HCP, PLV]Google Scholar
Chase, I. D. (1974) Models of hierarchy formation in animal societies. Behavioral Science 19:374–82. [IDC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chase, I. D. (1980a) Cooperative and noncooperative behavior in animals. American Naturalist 115:827–57. [IDC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chase, I. D. (1980b) Social process and hierarchy formation in small groups: A comparative perspective. American Sociological Review 45:905–24. [IDC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Childe, V. G. (1963) Social evolution. London: Fontana. [OTC, HCP]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1980) Rules and representations. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3:1–61. [SAP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clarke, B. (1968) Balanced polymorphism and regional differentiation in land snails. In: Evolution and environment, ed. Drake, E. T.. New Haven: Yale University Press, p. 351–68. [SL]Google Scholar
Cloak, F. T. Jr. (1975) Is a cultural ethology possible? Human Ecology 3:161–82. [JHB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cloak, F. T. Jr. (1976) The evolutionary success of altruism and urban social order. Zygon 11:219–40. [FTC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cloak, F. T. Jr. (1977) Comment on “The adaptive significance of cultural behavior,” by W. H. Durham. Human Ecology 5:49–52. [FTC]Google Scholar
Cloak, F. T. Jr. (1980) Why electromagnetism is the only causal “spook” required to explain any human behavior or institution. In: The relationship of verbal to nonverbal communication, ed. Key, M. R., pp. 327–48. The Hague: Mouton. [FTC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darwin, C. R. (1859) On the origin of species. London: Murray. [TDJ, PCM]Google Scholar
Dawkins, R. (1976) The selfish gene. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [DAD, TDJ, HCP, MRu, PLV]Google Scholar
Dawkins, R. (1978) Replicator selection and the extended phenotype. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 47:61–76. [DAD, DLH, HCP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dawkins, R. (1979) Defining sociobiology. Nature 280:427–28. [DLH, MRi]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
deBeer, G. (1958) Embryos and ancestors. London: Oxford University Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Dewsbury, D. A. (1978) Comparative animal behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill. [DAD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dobzhansky, T. (1972) Genetics and the diversity of behavior. American Psychologist 27:523–530. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doolittle, W. F. & Sapienza, C. (1980) Selfish genes, the phenotypic paradigm and genome evolution. Nature 284:601–93. [AJP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunn, F. L. (1970) Cultural evolution in the late Pleistocene and Holocene of Southeast Asia. American Anthropologist 72:1041–54. [EER]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durham, W. H. (1976) The adaptive significance of cultural behavior. Human Ecology 4:89–121. [HCP, HRP, EER. MRu]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durham, W. H. (1979) Towards a coevolutionary theory of human biology and culture. In: Evolutionary biology and human social behavior, ed. Chagnon, N. A. & Irons, W., pp. 39–59. North Scituate, Mass.: Duxbury Press. [HCP, MRu]Google Scholar
Eckberg, D. L. (1977) Sociobiology and the death of sociology. American Sociologist 12:191–96. [DLE]Google Scholar
Ellis, L. (1976) The decline and fall of sociology. American Sociologist 12:56–66. [DLE]Google Scholar
Feldman, M. & Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. (1976) Cultural and biological evolutionary processes, selection for a trait under complex transmission. Theoretical Population Biology 9:238–59. [PJR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, R. A. (1930) [revised 1958] The genetical theory of natural selection. Oxford: Clarendon Press. [HCP, AV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ford, E. B. (1975) Ecological genetics (4th ed). London: Chapman & Hall. [MRi]Google Scholar
Freeman, R. D., ed. (1979) Developmental neurobiology of vision. New York: Plenum Press. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fried, Morton H. (1967) The evolution of political society: An essay in political anthropology. New York: Random House. [EER]Google Scholar
Garcia, J. & Koelling, R. A. (1966) Relation of cue to consequence in avoidance learning. Psychonomic Science 4:123–24. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cause, G. J. (1942) The relation of adaptability to adaptation. Quarterly Review of Biology 17:99–114. [PHK]Google Scholar
Geertz, C. (1963) Agricultural involution: The processes of ecological change in Indonesia. Berkeley: University of California Press. [EER]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geertz, C. (1968) The impact of the concept of culture on the concept of man. In: Man in adaptation: The cultural present, ed. Cohen, Y. A., pp. 16–29. Chicago: Aldine. [EER]Google Scholar
Ginsberg, M. (1961) Social evolution. In: Darwinism and the study of society, ed. Banton, M., pp. 95–127. Chicago: Quadrangle Books. [DTC]Google Scholar
Goldschmidt, W. (1976) The war between the words. American Psychologist 31:355–57. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gould, S. J. (1977) Ever since Darwin. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. [DLH]Google Scholar
Gould, S. J. (1977) Ontogeny and phytogeny. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Gould, S. J. (1980) Is a new and general theory of evolution emerging? Paleobiology 6:119–30. [AJP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gould, S. J. (1980) Sociobiology and the theory of natural selection. In: Sociobiology: Beyond nature/nurture? ed. Barlow, G. W. & Silverberg, J., pp. 257–68. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. [DLH]Google Scholar
Gould, S. J. & Lewontin, R. C. (1979) The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: A critique of the adaptationist programme. Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B 205:581–98. [HCP]Google Scholar
Gregory, M. S.; Silvers, A. & Sutch, D., eds. (1978) Sociobiology and human nature. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. [HCP]Google Scholar
Griffin, D. R. (1958) Listening in the dark. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. [DTC]Google Scholar
Grun, P. (1976) Cytoplasmic genetics and evolution. New York: Columbia University Press. [DW]Google Scholar
Guhl, A. M. (1975) Social behavior in the domestic fowl. In: Social hierarchy and dominance, ed. Schein, M., pp. 156–201. Stroudsburg, Penn.: Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross. [IDC]Google Scholar
Haldane, J. B. S. (1932) The causes of evolution. London: Longmans, Green & Company. [DTC, HCP]Google Scholar
Hamilton, W. D. (1964) The genetical theory of social behaviour. Journal of Theoretical Biology 7:1–52. [IDC, TDJ, HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, W. D. (1975) Innate social aptitudes in man: An approach from evolutionary genetics. In: Biosocial anthropology, ed. Fox, R., pp. 133–155. London: Malaby Press. [HCP]Google Scholar
Hardin, G. (1978) Nice guys finish last. In: Sociobiology and human nature, ed. Gregory, M. S., Silvers, A. & Sutch, D., pp. 183–94. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. [DLH]Google Scholar
Harris, M. (1979) Cultural materialism: The struggle for a science of culture. New York: Vintage. [MRu]Google Scholar
Harris, M. & Wilson, E. O. (1978) The envelope and the twig. The Sciences 18:10–15 & 27. [MRi]Google ScholarPubMed
Hinde, R. A. (1970) Animal Behavior: A synthesis of ethology and comparative psychology. 2nd ed.New York: McGraw-Hill. [DAD]Google Scholar
Hirsch, J. (1967) Behavior-genetic or 'experimental' analysis. American Psychologist 22:118–30. [DLE]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hirsch, J. (1968) Behavior-genetic analysis and the study of man. In: Science and the concept of race, ed. Mead, M., Dobzhansky, T., Tobach, E. & Light, R. E., pp. 37–48. New York: Columbia University Press. [DLE]Google Scholar
Hirsh, H. V. B. & Jacobson, M. (1975) The perfectible brain: Principles of neuronal development. In: Handbook of psychobiology, ed. Gazzaniga, M. S. & Blakemore, C., pp. 107–137. New York: Academic Press. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ho, M. W. & Saunders, P. T. (1979) Beyond neo-Darwinism - an epigenetic approach to evolution. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 78:573–91. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holmes, S. J. (1916) Studies in animal behavior. Boston: Gorham Press. [DTC]Google Scholar
Hull, D. L. (1978) Altruism in science: A sociobiological model of cooperative behaviour among scientists. Animal Behaviour, 26:685–97. [DLH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hull, D. L. (1980) Individuality and selection. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 11:311–32. [DLH, HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hull, D. L. (1981, in press) The units of evolution: A metaphysical essay. In: The philosophy of biology, ed. Harre, R. & Jensen, U., London: Harvester Press. [HCP]Google Scholar
Irons, W. (1979) Natural selection, adaptation and human social behaviour. In: Evolutionary biology and human social behavior, ed. Chagnon, N. A. & Irons, W., pp. 4–39. North Scituate, Mass.: Duxbury Press. [PLV, HCP]Google Scholar
Johnston, T. D. (1981) Contrasting approaches to a theory of learning. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 4:125–73. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnston, T. D. & Turvey, M. J. (1980) A sketch of an ecological metatheory for theories of learning. Psychology of Learning and Motivation 14:147–205. [TDJ, HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kandel, E. R. (1976) The cellular basis of behaviour. London: Freeman. [HCP]Google Scholar
King, M. & Wilson, A. C. (1975) Evolution at two levels in humans and chimpanzees. Science 188:107–16. [AJP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krechevsky, I. (1932) Hypotheses in rats. Psychological Review 39:516–32. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kummer, H. (1975) Rules of dyad and group formation among captive gelada baboons (Theropithecus gelada). In: Proceedings of the symposia of the Fifth Congress of the International Primate Society, pp. 129–59. Tokyo: Japan Science Press. [IDC]Google Scholar
Landau, H. G. (1951) On dominance relations and the structure of animal societies: I. Effect of inherent characteristics. Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, 13:1–19. [IDC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levine, L. & Krupa, P. L. (1966) Studies on sexual selection in mice. III. Effects of the gene for albinism. American Naturalist, 100:227–34. [SL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levine, L. & Lascher, B. (1965) Studies on sexual selection in mice. II. Reproductive competition between black and brown males. American Naturalist, 99:67–72. [SL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewontin, R. C. (1970) The units of selection. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 1:1–18, [HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewontin, R. C. (1974) The genetic basis of evolutionary change. New York: Columbia University Press. [LBS]Google Scholar
Lewontin, R. C. (1976) The analysis of variance and the analysis of causes. In: The IQ controversy, ed. Block, N. J. & Dworkin, G.. New York: Random House. [DLE]Google Scholar
Lewontin, R. C. (1979) Sociobiology as an adaptationist program. Behavioral Science, 24:5–14. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lehninger, A. L. (1967) Cell organelles: The mitochondrion. In: The neurosciences, ed. Quarton, G. C., Melnechuck, T. & Schmitt, F. O., pp. 91–100. New York: Rockefeller University Press. [DW]Google Scholar
Livingston, F. B. (1974) Anthropological implications of sickle cell gene distribution in Africa. In: Man in adaptation: The biosocial background, ed. Cohen, Y. A., pp. 228–47, 2nd ed.Chicago: Aldine. [EER]Google Scholar
Lorenz, K. (1965) Evolution and modification of behaviour. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [DAD, HCP]Google Scholar
Lorenz, K. (1969) Innate bases of learning. In: On the biology of learning, ed. Pribram, K. R., pp. 13–90. New York: Harcourt. [HCP, HRP]Google Scholar
Lumsden, C. J. & Wilson, E. O. (1980) Translation of epigenetic rules of individual behaviour into ethnographic patterns. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A. 77:4382–86. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maynard Smith, J. (1976) Evolution and the theory of games. American Scientist 64:41–45. [HCP]Google Scholar
Maynard Smith, J. (1977) Parental investment: A prospective analysis. Animal Behavior 25:1–9. [IDC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maynard Smith, J. (1978) Constraints on human behavior. Nature 276:120–21. [AJP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maynard Smith, J. & Holliday, R. (1979) Preface. In: The evolution of adaptation by natural selection, ed. Maynard Smith, J. & Holliday, R., pp. v–vii. London: The Royal Society. [MRi]Google Scholar
Maynard Smith, J. & Price, G. R. (1973) The logic of animal conflict. Nature 246:15–18. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayr, E. (1961) Cause and effect in biology. Science 134:1501–05. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mayr, E. (1974a) Behavior programs and evolutionary strategies. American Scientist 62:650–59. [HCP]Google ScholarPubMed
Mayr, E. (1974b) Teleological and teleonomic: A new analysis. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science 14:91–117. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McFarland, D. J. (1976) Form and function in the temporal organization of behaviour. In: Crowing points in ethology, ed. Bateson, P. P. G. & Hinde, R. A., pp. 55–93. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [HCP]Google Scholar
Meehl, P. E. (1950) On the circularity of the law of effect. Psychological Bulletin 47:52–75. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, J. G. (1978) Living systems. New York: McGraw-Hill. [HCP]Google Scholar
Mundinger, P. C. (1980) Animal cultures and a general theory of cultural evolution. Ethology and Sociobiology 1:183–223. [PCM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murray, J. (1972) Genetic diversity and natural selection. New York: Hafner. [SL]Google Scholar
Murray, J. & Clarke, B. (1966) The inheritance of polymorphic shell characters in Partula (Gastropoda). Genetics 54:1261–77. [SL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Odling-Smee, F. J. & Plotkin, H. C. (1981) Units of selection: The end of “of”? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 4:154–55. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Odling-Smee, F. J. & Plotkin, H. C. (1981, in preparation) How living systems modify their own environments and hence their own evolution. [HCP]Google Scholar
Orgel, L. E. & Crick, F. H. C. (1980) Selfish DNA: The ultimate parasite. Nature 284:604–07. [AJP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pittendrigh, C. S. (1958) Adaptation, natural selection and behavior. In: Behavior and evolution, ed. Roe, A. & Simpson, G. G., pp. 390–416. New Haven: Yale University Press. [HCP]Google Scholar
Plotkin, H. C. & Odling-Smee, F. J. (1979) Learning, change and evolution. Advances in the study of behaviour 10:1–41. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plotkin, H. C. & Odling-Smee, F. J. ed. (1981, in press) Readings and essays in evolutionary epistemology. Chichester, England: Wiley. [HCP]Google Scholar
Popper, K. R. (1972) Objective knowledge: An evolutionary approach. London: Oxford University Press. [HCP]Google Scholar
Pringle, J. W. S. (1951) On the parallel between learning and evolution. Behaviour 3:175–215. [DTC, HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pulliam, H. R. & Dunford, C. (1980) Programmed to learn. New York: Columbia University Press. [HRP, PJR]Google Scholar
Pumphrey, R. J. (1950) Hearing. In: Symposia of the society for experimental biology, IV: Physiological mechanism in animal behavior, pp. 1–18. New York: Academic Press. [DTC]Google Scholar
Pumphrey, R. J. (1967) Random House Dictionary of the English Language. New York: Random House. [PCM]Google Scholar
Rao, D. C.; Morton, N. E. & Yee, S. (1976) Resolution of cultural and biological inheritance by path analysis. American Journal of Human Genetics 28:228–42. [DW]Google ScholarPubMed
Richerson, P. J. & Boyd, R. (1978) A dual inheritance model of the human evolutionary process I: Basic postulates and a simple model. Journal of Social and Biological Structures 1:127–54. [JHB, PJR, PLV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenblatt, J. S. (1976) Review of Wilson's Sociobiology. Animal Behaviour 24:713–15. [HCP]Google Scholar
Ruse, M. (1979) Sociobiology: Sense or nonsense? Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel. [HCP, MRu, MRi]Google Scholar
Ruse, M. (1981a) Is science sexist? and other problems in the biomedical sciences. Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel. [HCP, MRu]Google Scholar
Ruse, M. (1981b, in press) Are there gay genes? Journal of Homosexuality. [MRu]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ruyle, E. E. (1973) Genetic and cultural pools: Some suggestions for a unified theory of biocultural evolution. Human Ecology 1:201–15. [EER]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruyle, E. E. (1976) Labor, people, culture: A labor theory of human origins. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 20:136–63. [EER]Google Scholar
Ruyle, E. E. (1977) Comment on Durham 1976. Human Ecology 5:53–55. [EER]Google Scholar
Sahlins, M. (1976) The use and abuse of biology. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. [DLE, AJP, HCP, MRu]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmalhausen, I. (1949) Factors of evolution. London: Hutchinson. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Schneirla, T. C. (1946) Problems in the biopsychology of social organization in animals. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 41:385–402. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneirla, T. C. (1951) The “levels” concept in the study of social organization in animals. In: Social psychology at the crossroads, ed. Sherif, M. & Rohrer, E., pp. 163–91. New York: Harper. [HCP]Google Scholar
Schneirla, T. C. (1956) Interrelationships of the “innate” and “acquired” in instinctive behavior. In: L'instinct dans le comportement des animaux et de l'homme, ed. Grasse, G., pp. 387–452. Paris: Mason. [HCP]Google Scholar
Shettleworth, S. J. (1981, in press) Function and mechanisms in learning. Advances in the Analysis of Behaviour 3. [HCP]Google Scholar
Sibly, R. M. & McFarland, D. J. (1976) On the fitness of behaviour sequences. American Naturalist 110:601–17. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1966) The phylogeny and ontogeny of behavior. Science 153:1205–13. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Slobodkin, L. B. (in press). Problems of ecological description: The adaptive response surface of Hydra. In: Atti del 3 simposio Italiano di dinamica di popolazione, ed. de Bernardi, R.. Memoiri Istituto Italiano Idrobiologica, suppl. 37. [LBS]Google Scholar
Slobodkin, L. B. & Rapoport, A. (1974) An optimal strategy of evolution. Quarterly Review of Biology 49:181–200. [TDJ, HCP. LBS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Slobodkin, L. B. & Rapoport, A. (1978) Is history a consequence of evolution? In: Perspectives in ethology, ed. Bateson, P. P. G. & Klopfer, P. H., pp. 233–255. New York: Plenum. [HCP]Google Scholar
Sommerhoff, G. (1950) Analytical Biology. Oxford: Clarendon Press. [HCP]Google Scholar
Spiegelman, S. (1948) Differentiation as the controlled production of unique enzymatic patterns. In: Symposia of the society for experimental biology. II: Growth in relation to differentiation and morphogenesis. New York: Academic Press. [DTC]Google Scholar
Staddon, J. E. R. & Simmelhag, V. L. (1971) The superstition experiment. Psychological Review 78:3–43. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stammbach, E. (1979) On social differentiation in groups of captive female hamadryas baboons. Behaviour 67:322–38. [IDC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steele, E. J. (1979) Somatic selection and adaptive evolution. Toronto: Williams & Wallace. [DW]Google Scholar
Subtelny, S. & Konigsberg, I. R.. eds. (1979) Determinants of spatial organization. New York: Academic Press. [DW]Google Scholar
Tinbergen, N. (1951) The study of instinct. Oxford: Clarendon Press. [HCP, HRP]Google Scholar
Tinbergen, N. (1963) On aims and methods of ethology. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 20:410–29. [DAD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1971) The evolution of reciprocal altruism. Quarterly Review of Biology 46:35–57. [PLV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1972) Parental investment and sexual selection. In: Sexual selection and the descent of man, ed. Campbell, B., pp. 136–79. Chicago: Aldine. [PLV]Google Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1974) Parent-offspring conflict. American Zoologist 14:249–64. [PLV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van den Berghe, P. L. (1978) Man in society. New York: Elsevier. [PLV]Google Scholar
van den Berghe, P. L. (1979) Human family systems: An evolutionary view. New York: Elsevier. [MRu]Google Scholar
Vayda, A. P. & Rappaport, R. A. (1976) Ecology, cultural and non-cultural. In: Human ecology: An environmental approach, ed. Richerson, P. J. & McEvoy, J. III, pp. 6–25. Belmont, Calif.: Duxbury Press. [EER]Google Scholar
Waddington, C. H. (1956) The strategy of the genes. London: Allen & Unwin. [HCP]Google Scholar
Waddington, C. H. (1959) Evolutionary adaptation. In: The evolution of life, ed. Tax, Sol, pp. 381–402. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [HCP]Google Scholar
Waddington, C. H. (1961) The human evolutionary system. In: Darwinism and the study of society, ed. Banton, M., pp. 63–82. Chicago: Quadrangle Books. [DTC]Google Scholar
Waddington, C. H. (1969) Paradigm for an evolutionary process. In: Towards a theoretical biology, vol. 2, ed. Waddington, C. H., pp. 106–128. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. [HCP]Google Scholar
Waltz, K. (1959) Man, the state and war. New York: Columbia University Press. [SAP]Google Scholar
West-Eberhard, M. J. (1979) Sexual selection, social competition, and evolution. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 123:222–34. [DTC]Google Scholar
Wiley, R. H. (1973) Territoriality and non-random mating in sage grouse, Centrocerus urophasianus. Animal Behaviour Monographs 6:85–169. [IDC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, G. C. (1966) Adaptation and natural selection. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. [DTC, AJP, HCP]Google Scholar
Wilson, D. S. (1980) The selection of populations and communities. Menlo Park, Calif.: Benjamin/Cummings Publishers. [DTC]Google Scholar
Wilson, E. O. (1971) The insect societies. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press (Belknap Press). [DLH]Google Scholar
Wilson, E. O. (1975) Sociobiology: The new synthesis. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press (Belknap Press). [DLH, HCP, MRu, PLV]Google Scholar
Wilson, E. O. (1978) On human nature. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. [AJP, PLV]Google ScholarPubMed
Wispé, L. G. & Thompson, J. N., eds. (1976) The war between the words. American Psychologist 31:341–384. [SAP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, S. (1931) Evolution in Mendelian populations. Genetics 16:97–159. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wright, S. (1980) Genic and organismic selection. Evolution 34:825–43. [PHK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zuckerkand, E. (1976) Programs of gene action and progressive evolution. In: Molecular anthropology, ed. Goodman, M., Tashian, R. E. & Tashian, J. H., pp. 387–447. New York: Plenum Press. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar