Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T03:40:05.612Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Addiction: Taking the brain seriously

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

Steven E. Hyman
Steven E. Hyman
Affiliation:
Laboratory of Molecular and Developmental Neuroscience, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114 and National Institute of Mental Health, Rockville, MD 20857. hyman@helix.mgh.harvard.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Heyman's target article is an analytical tour de force, but it makes too hard a distinction between voluntary and driven behavior. It is more fruitful to think about brain and behavior as shifting, interacting “agents,” represented by multiple neural circuits. This has the virtue of better connecting behavioral analysis with wet neuroscience.

Type
Open Peer Commentary
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 19 , Issue 4 , December 1996 , pp. 582
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1996

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agar, M. (1973) Ripping and running. Seminar Press. [arGMH]Google Scholar
Aigner, T. G. & Balster, R. L. (1978) Choice behavior in rhesus monkeys: Cocaine versus food. Science 201:534–35. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ainslie, G. (1974) Impulse control in pigeons. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 21:485–89. [aGMH, AWL, RMS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ainslie, G. (1975) Specious reward: A behavioral theory of impulsiveness and impulse control. Psychological Bulletin 82:463–96. [GA, REV]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ainslie, G. (1992) Picoeconomics: The strategic interaction of successive motivational states within the person. Cambridge University Press. [aGMH, GA, EF]Google Scholar
Ainslie, G. (in press) The dangers of willpower: A picoeconomic understanding of addiction and dissociation. In: Getting hooked: Rationality and the addictions, ed. Elster, J. & Skog, O.-J.. Cambridge University Press. [GA]Google Scholar
Alcoholics Anonymous (1976) The story of how many thousands of men and women have recovered from alcoholism, 3d ed.Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Inc. [arGMH]Google Scholar
Alexander, B. K. & Schweighofer, A. (1988) Defining “addiction.” Canadian Psychologyi/Psychology Canadienne 29:151–62. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (1987) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, third ed. revised (DSM-III-R). Washington, DC. [aCMH]Google Scholar
Alexander, B. K. & Schweighofer, A. (1994) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th ed.Washington, D. C. [SEH]Google Scholar
Anthony, J. C. & Helzer, J. E. (1991) Syndromes of drug abuse and dependence. In: Psychiatric disorders in America, ed. Robins, L. N. & Regier, D. A.. Free Press. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Ashton, H., Stepney, R. & Thompson, J. W. (1979) Self-titration in cigarette smokers. British Medical Journal 2:357–60. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Babor, T. F., Berglas, S., Mendelson, J. H., Ellingboe, J. & Miller, J. (1983) Alcohol, affect and the disinhibition of verbal behavior. Psychopharmacology 80:53–60. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Babor, T. F., Mendelson, J. H., Greenberg, I. & Kuehnle, J. (1978) Experimental analysis of the “happy hour”: Effects of purchase price on alcohol consumption. Psychopharmacology 58:35–41. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bailey, J. T. & Mazur, J. E. (1990) Choice behavior in transition: Development of preference for the higher probability of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 53:409–22. [SAV]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baker, T. B., ed. (1988) Models of addiction. Journal of Abnormal Psychology [special issue] 97:115–245. [RJM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barber, J. G. & Crisp, B. R. (1995) The “pressures to change” approach to working with the partners of heavy drinkers. Addiction 90:268–76. [JO]Google Scholar
Baum, W. M. (1974) Choice in free ranging wild pigeons. Science 185:78–79. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baum, W. M. (1981) Optimization and the matching law as account of instrumental behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 36:387–403. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Becker, G. S., Grossman, M. & Murphy, K. M. (1994) An empirical analysis of cigarette addiction. American Economic Review 84:396–418. [DIL]Google Scholar
Becker, G. S. & Murphy, K. M. (1988) A theory of rational addiction. Journal of Political Economy 96:675–700. [DIL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berridge, K. C. & Robinson, T. E. (1995) The mind of an addicted brain: Neural sensitization of “wanting” versus “liking.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 4:71–76. [aCMH, KCB, TER, PS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berridge, K. C. & Schulkin, J. (1989) Payability shift of a salt-associated incentive during sodium depletion. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 41B:121–38. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Bickel, W. K. & DeGrandpre, R. J. (1995) Price and alternatives: Suggestions for drug policy from psychology. The International Journal of Drug Policy 6:93–105. [REV]Google Scholar
Bickel, W. K., DeGrandpre, R. J. & Higgins, S. T. (1993) Behavioral economics: A novel experimental approach to drug dependence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 33:173–92. [rCMH, REV]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bickel, W. K., DeGrandpre, R. J. & Higgins, S. T. (1995) The behavioral economics of concurrent drug reinforcers: A review and reanalysis of drug self-administration research. Psychopharmacology 118:250–59. [STH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Biemacki, P. (1986) Pathways from heroin addiction: Recovery without treatment. Temple University Press. [JO]Google Scholar
Bigelow, B. & Liebson, I. (1972) Cost factors controlling alcoholic drinking. Psychological Record 22:305–14. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blachly, P. H. (1970) Seduction: A conceptual model in the drug dependencies and other contagious ills. Thomas, Charles C.. [REV]Google Scholar
Blackman, D. E. (1968) Response rate, reinforcement frequency and conditioned suppression. Joumal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 11:503–16. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brecher, E. (1972) Licit and illicit drugs. Little, Brown. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Burroughs, W. S. (1961) Master addict to dangerous drugs. In: The drug experience, ed. Ebin, D.. Penguin. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Burroughs, W. S. (1977) Junky. Penguin. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Carroll, J. (1987) The basketball diaries. Penguin. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Childress, A. R., Ehrman, R., Rohsenow, D. J., Robbins, S. J. & O'Brien, C. P. (1992) In: Substance abuse: A comprehensive textbook, ed. Lowinson, J. H., Ruiz, P., Millman, R. B. & Langrod, J. G.. Williams & Wilkins. [SAV]Google Scholar
Clairborn, W., Lewis, P. & Humble, S. (1972) Stimulus satiation and smoking: A revisit. Journal of Clinical Psychology 28:416–19. [GA]3.0.CO;2-#>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, W. B. & Hilton, M. E. (1991) Alcohol in America. State University of New York Press. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Cloninger, C. R. (1987) Neurogenetic adaptive mechanisms in alcoholism. Science 236:410–16. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, D. J., Bruun, R. D. & Leckman, J. F. (1988) Tourette's syndrome and tic disorders: Clinical understanding and treatment. Wiley. [rGMH]Google Scholar
Cohen, M., Liebson, I., Faillace, L. & Speers, W. (1971) Alcoholism: Controlled drinking and incentives for abstinence. Psychological Reports 28:575–80. [arGMH, TER]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, S. L. (in press) Behavioral momentum in college students. Journal of Behavior Analysis and Therapy. [JAN]Google Scholar
Conger, R. & Killeen, P. (1974) Use of concurrent operants in small group research. Pacific Sociological Review 17:399–416. [arCMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Courtwright, D. T. (1982) Dark paradise: Opiate addiction in America before 1940. Harvard University Press. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Crammer, J. L. (1991) Drinking, thirst, and water intoxication. British Journal of Psychiatry 159:83–89. [rCMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, J. B. (1992) The myth of addiction: An application of the psychological theory of attribution to illicit drug use. Harwood. [JO]Google Scholar
Davies, N. B. & Houston, A. I. (1983) Time allocation between territories and flocks and owner satellite conflict in foraging pied wagtails Motacilla alba. Journal of Animal Ecology 52:621–34. [AIH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davison, M. C. & McCarthy, D. C. (1988) The matching law: A research review. Erlbaum. [aGMH]Google Scholar
De Wit, & Stewart, J. (1981) Reinstatement of cocaine reinforced responding in the rat. Psychopharmacology 75:134–43. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeGrandpre, R. J. & Bickel, W. K. (1993) Stimulus control and drug dependence. Psychological Record 43:651–66. [JAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Devor, E. J. & Cloninger, C. R. (1989) Genetics of alcoholism. Annual Review of Genetics 23:19–36. [DM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diamond, J. (1992) Sweet death. Natural History. 02:2–6. [rCMH]Google Scholar
Diaz, F., Cadaveira, F. & Grau, C. (1990) Short- and middle-latency evoked potentials in abstinent chronic alcoholics: Preliminary findings. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 77:145–50. [DM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dollard, J. & Miller, N. E. (1950) Personality and psychotherapy. McGraw-Hill. [DM]Google Scholar
Elsmore, T. F, Fletcher, D. V, Conrad, D. G. & Sodetz, F. J. (1980) Reduction of heroin intake in baboons by an economic constraint. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 13:729–31. [EF, rCMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Epstein, L. H., Smith, J. A., Vara, L. S. & Rodefer, J. S. (1991) Behavioral economic analysis of activity choice in obese children. Health Psychology 10:311–16. [STH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evenson, R., Altman, H., Sletton, J. & Knowles, R. (1973) Factors in the description and grouping of alcoholics. American Journal of Psychiatry 130:49–54. [GA]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Falk, J. L. (1981) The environmental generation of excessive behavior. In: Behavior in excess: An examination of the volitional disorders, ed. Mule, S. J.. Free Press. [REV]Google Scholar
Falk, J. L., Dews, P. B. & Schuster, C. R. (1983) Commonalities in the environmental control of behavior. In: Commonalities in substance abuse and habitual behavior, ed. Levinson, P. K., Gerstein, D. R. & Maloff, D. R.. Lexington Books. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Fantino, E. (1966) Immediate reward followed by extinction vs. later reward without extinction. Psychonomic Science 6:233–34. [EF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fingarette, H. (1988) Heavy drinking: The myth of alcoholism as a disease. University of California Press. [aGMH, REV]Google Scholar
Fiorina, D. F. & Phillips, A. G. (1995) Facilitated acquisition of sexual behavior in male rats following d-amphetamine-induced behavioral sensitization. Society for Neuwsdence Abstracts 21:1673. [TER]Google Scholar
Fischman, M. W., Schuster, C. R., Javaid, J., Hatano, Y. & Davis, J. (1985) Acute tolerance development to the cardiovascular and subjective effects of cocaine. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 235:677–82. [rCMH]Google Scholar
Forzano, L. B. & Logue, A. W. (1994) Self-control in adult humans: Comparison of qualitatively different reinforcers. Learning and Motivation 25:65–82. [AWL, RMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallistel, C. R. (1994) Foraging for brain stimulation: Toward a neurobiology of computation. Cognition 50:151–70. [PS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gawin, F. H. & Kleber, H. D. (1986) Abstinence symptomatology and psychiatric diagnosis in cocaine abusers. Archives of General Psychiatry 43:107–13. [aCMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glassner, B. & Berg, B. (1980) How Jews avoid alcohol problems. American Sociological Review 45:647–64. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goleman, D. (1990) Flow viewers grow addicted to television. The New York Times, 10 16: Cl, C8. [rCMH]Google Scholar
Goodwin, D. W. (1988) Alcohol and the writer. Penguin. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Gordis, E. (1990) Introduction. In: Seventh Special Report to the U.S. Congress on Alcohol and Health. DHHS Publication No. [ADM] 90–1656. [aCMH]Google Scholar
Goudie, A.J & Emmett-Oglesby, M. W. (1989) Psychoactive drugs: Tolerance and sensitization. Humana Press. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grant, I. (1986) Intermediate-duration (subacute) organic mental disorder of alcoholism. In: Nettropsychiatric correlates of alcoholism, ed. Grant, I.. American Psychiatric Press. [DM]Google Scholar
Green, L. F., Fry, A. F. & Myerson, J. (1994) Discounting of delayed rewards: A life span comparison. Psychological Science 5:33–36. [GA]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, L. & Kagel, J. H., eds. (in press) Advances in behavioral economics, vol. 3. Substance use and abuse. Ablex. [REV]Google Scholar
Green, L. & Rachlin, H. (1991) Economic substitutability of electrical brain stimulation, food, and water. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 55:133–44. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grove, R. N. & Schuster, C. R. (1974) Suppression of cocaine self-administration by extinction and punishment. Pharmacology Biochemistry Behavior 2:199–208. [STH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hackforth, R., trans. (1945) Plato's examination of pleasure (the Philebus). Cambridge University Press. [JF]Google Scholar
Hamil, P. (1994) A drinking life. Little, Brown. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Hanson, B. (1985) Life with heroin. D. C. Heath. [arGMH]Google Scholar
Heather, N. & Robertson, I. (1981) Controlled drinking.Methuen. [REF]Google Scholar
Helzer, J. E. & Canino, G. J. (1992) Alcoholism in North America, Europe, and Asia. Oxford University Press. [REF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. (1961) Relative and absolute strengths of response as a function of frequency of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 4:267–72. [aCHM, GA, SAV]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herrnstein, R. J. (1970) On the law of effect. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 3:243–66. [aGMH, RMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. (1990) Behavior, reinforcement, and utility. Psychological Science 1:217–24. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. (1991) Experiments on stable suboptimality in individual behavior. American Economic Review 81:360–64. [DIL]Google Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. & Heyman, G. M. (1979) Is matching compatible with reinforcement maximization on concurrent variable-interval, variableratio? Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 31:209–33. [rGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J., Loewenstein, G., Prelec, D. & Vaughan, W Jr (1993) Utility maximization and melioration: Internalities in individual choice. Journal of Behavior Decision Making 6:149–85. [aCHM, GA, SAV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. & Loveland, D. H. (1975) Maximizing and matching on concurrent ratio schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 24:107–16. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herrnstein, R. J. & Prelec, D. (1991) Melioration: A theory of distributed choice. Journal of Economic Perspectives 5:319–40. [GA, DIL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. & Prelec, D. (1992) A theory of addiction. In: Choice over time, ed. Loewenstein, G. & Elster, J.. Russell Sage Foundation. [arCMH, RJM]Google Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. & Vaughan, W. (1980) Melioration and behavioral allocation. In: Limits to action, ed. Staddon, J. E. R.. Academic Press. [arCMH, JJP]Google Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. & Vaughan, W. (1987) Stability, melioration, and natural selection. In: Advances in behavioral economics, vol. 1, ed. Green, L. & Kagel, J. H.. Ablex. [DIL]Google Scholar
Heyman, G. M. (1983) A cross-situational test of utility theory. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2:324. [rGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heyman, G. M. (1993) Ethanol regulated preference in rats. Psychopharmacology 112:259–69. [rGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heyman, G. M. (1996) Elasticity of demand for alcohol in humans and rats. In: Advances in behavioral economics, vol. 3., ed. Green, L.. Ablex. [arGMH]Google Scholar
Heyman, G. M. – Hermstein, R. J. (1986) More on concurrent variable intervalratio schedules: A replication and review. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 46:331–51. [arGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heyman, G. M. & Luce, R. D. (1979) Operant matching is not a logical consequence of maximizing reinforcement rate. Animal Learning and Behavior 7:133–40. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heyman, G. M. & Oldfather, C. (1992) Elasticity of preference for ethanol in rats: An analysis of the reinforcing properties of ethanol. Psychological Science 3:122–30. [rGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heyman, G. M. & Tanz, L. (1995) How to teach a pigeon to maximize overall reinforcement rate. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 64. [arGMH, GA, SAV]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Higgins, S. T. (in press) Influence of alternative reinforcers on cocaine use and abuse: A brief review. Pharmacology Biochemistry Behavior. [STH]Google Scholar
Higgins, S. T, Budney, A. J., Bickel, W. K., Foerg, F. E., Donham, R. & Badger, G. J. (1994) Incentives improve outcome in outpatient behavioral treatment of cocaine dependence. Archives of General Psychiatry 51:568–76. [arCMH, STH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Homer, J. M. & Staddon, J. E. R. (1987) Probabilistic choice: A simple invariance. Behavioural Processes 15:59–92. [JJP]Google Scholar
Houston, A. I. (1986) The matching law applies to wagtails’ foraging in the wild. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 45:15–18. [aGMH, AIH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Houston, A. I. (1990) Matching, maximizing and melioration as alternative descriptions of behavior. In: From animals to animals, ed. Meyer, J. A. & Wilson, S.. MIT Press. [AIH]Google Scholar
Houston, A. I. & McNamara, J. M. (1981) How to maximize reward rate on two variable-interval paradigms. Jou mat of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 35:367–96. [AIH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hursh, S. R. (1980) Economic concepts for the analysis of behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 34:219–38. [ EF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hursh, S. R. (1984) Behavioral economics. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 34:219–38. [EF, rGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hursh, S. R. (1991) Behavioral economics of drug self-administration and drug abuse policy. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 56:377–93. [EF, rGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hyman, S. E. (1994) Why does the brain prefer opium to broccoli? Harvard Review of Psychiatry 2:43–46. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jaffe, J. H. (1980) Drag addiction and drug abuse. In: Goodman & Gilman's: The pharmacological basis of therapeutics, 6th ed., ed. Gilman, A. G., Goodman, L. S. & Gilman, A.. Macmillan. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Jaffe, J. H. (1992) Current concepts of addiction. In: Addictive states, ed. O'Brien, C. P. & Jaffe, J. H.. Raven. [arGMH]Google Scholar
James, W. (1890) Principles of psychology. Holt. [GA]Google Scholar
Jellinek, E. M. (1946) Phases in the drinking history of alcoholics. Quarterly Journal Studies on Alcohol 7:1–88. [aGMH]Google ScholarPubMed
Jellinek, E. M. (1952) Phases of alcohol addiction. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol 13:673–84. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jellinek, E. M. (1960) The disease concept of alcoholism. Hillhouse Press. [aGMH, REF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalant, H. (1989) The nature of addiction: An analysis of the problem. In: Molecular and cellular aspects of the drug addictions, ed. Goldstein, A. G.. Springer-Verlag. [arGMH]Google Scholar
Kandel, D. B. (1992) Epidemiological trends and implications for understanding the nature of addiciton. In: Addictive states, ed. O'Brien, C. P. & Jaffe, J. H.. Raven. [arGMH]Google Scholar
Kassel, J. D. & Shiffman, S. (1992) What can hunger teach us about drug craving? A comparative analysis of the two constructs. Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy 14:141–67. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katz, J. L. (1980) Second-order schedule of intramuscular cocaine injection in the squirrel monkey: Comparisons with food and effects of d-amphetamine and promazine. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 212:405–11. [STH]Google ScholarPubMed
Kelleher, R. T. & Morse, W. H. (1968) Schedules using noxious stimuli: 3. Responding maintained with response-produced electric shocks. Journal of Experimental Analysis of Behavior 11:819–38. [WAM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kissin, B. (1983) The disease concept of alcoholism. In: Research advances in alcoholism and drug problems, vol. 7, ed. Smart, R. G., Glaser, F. B., Israel, Y., Kalant, H., Popham, R. E. & Schmidt, W.. Plenum. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Kleber, H. G. & Gawin, F. H. (1987) In reply. Archives of General Psychiatry 44:298. [rCMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koob, G. F. & Bloom, F. L. (1988) Cellular and molecular mechanisms of drug dependence. Science 242:715–23. [aGMH, SEH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krebs, J. R. & Kacelnik, A. (1984) Time horizons of foraging animals. In: Timing and time perception, ed. Gibbon, J. & Allan, L.. New York Academy of Sciences. [AWL, RMS]Google Scholar
Krogh, D. (1991) Smoking, the artificial passion. Freeman. [arGMH]Google Scholar
L'Abate, L., Farrar, J. E. & Serritella, D. A., eds. (1992) Handbook of differential treatments for addictions. Allyn and Bacon. [JO]Google Scholar
Lamb, R. J., Preston, K. L., Schindler, C., Meisch, R. A., Davis, F., Katz, J. L., Henningfield, J. E. & Goldberg, S. R. (1991) The reinforcing and subjective effects of morphine in post-addicts: A dose-response study. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 259:1165–73. [rGMH]Google ScholarPubMed
Lelbach, W. K. (1975) Cirrhosis in the alcoholic and its relation to the volume of alcohol abuse. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 252:85–105. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lett, B. T. (1989) Repeated exposures intensify rather than diminish the rewarding effects of amphetamine, morphine, and cocaine. Psychopharmacology 98:357–62. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levine, H. G. (1978) The discovery of addiction. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 39:143–74. [aGMH, REV]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, D. C. (1991) Comparison of alcoholism and other medical diseases: An internists view. Psychiatric Annals 21:256–65. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loewenstein, G. & Elster, J., eds. (1992) Choice over time. Russell Sage Foundation. [RJM]Google Scholar
Logue, A. W. (1988) Research on self-control: An integrating framework. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 11:665–709. [AWL, RMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Logue, A. W. (1995) Self-control: Waiting until tomorrow for what you want today. Prentice Hall. [AWL, RMS]Google Scholar
Logue, A. W., Tobin, H., Chelonis, J., Wang, R., Geary, N. & Schachter, S. (1992) Cocaine decreases self-control in rats: Preliminary report. Psychopharmacology 109:245–47. [AWL, RMS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lowinson, J. H., Ruiz, P. & Millman, R. B. (1992) Substance abuse: A comprehensive textbook. Williams & Wilkins. [GA]Google Scholar
MacCoun, R. J. (1993) Drugs and the law: A psychological analysis of drug prohibition. Psychological Bulletin 113:497–512. [RJM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacCoun, R., Reuter, P. & Schelling, T. (1996) Assessing alternative drug control regimes. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 15:1–23. [RJM]3.0.CO;2-J>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mace, F. C., Lalli, J. S., Shea, M. C., Lalli, E. P., West, B. J., Roberts, M. & Nevin, J. A. (1990) The momentum of human behavior in a natural setting. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 54:163–72. [JAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacKintosh, N. J. (1974) The psychology of animal learning. Academic Press. [DM]Google Scholar
Maltzman, I. (1994) Why alcoholism is a disease. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 26:13–31. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marlatt, G. A. & Gordon, J. R. (1980) Determinants of relapse: Implications for the maintenance of behavior change. In: Behavioral medicine: Changing health lifestyles, ed. Davidson, P. O. & Davidson, S. M.. Pergamon. [aGMH, GA]Google Scholar
Marlatt, G. A. & Gordon, J. R., eds. (1985) Relapse prevention: Maintenance strategies in the treatment of addictive behaviors. Guilford Press. [REV]Google Scholar
Marr, D. (1982) Vision. Freeman. [PS]Google Scholar
Martens, B. K., Halperin, S., Rummel, J. E. & Kilpatrick, D. (1990) Matching theory applied to contingent teacher attention. Behavioral Assessment 12:139–55. [rGMH]Google Scholar
Mattaini, M. A. (1991) Substance abuse in rural Alaska. Behavior and Social Issues 1:3–26. [JAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mazur, J. E. (1994) Learning and behavior. Prentice Hall. [rGMH]Google Scholar
Mazur, J. E. (1987) An adjusting procedure for studying delayed reinforcement. In: Quantitative analyses of behavior: 5. The effect of delay and of intervening events on reinforcement value, ed. Commons, M. L., Mazur, J. E., Nevin, J. A. & Rachlin, H.. Erlbaum. [aGMH]Google Scholar
McGue, M., Pickens, R. & Svikis, D. (1992) Sex and age effects on the inheritance of alcohol problems: A twin study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 101:3–17. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McKeown, T. (1988) The origins of human disease. Blackwell. [aGMH]Google Scholar
McKim, W. A. (1991) Drugs and behavior: An introduction to behavioral pharmacology. Prentice Hall. [arGMH, WAM]Google Scholar
McKim, W. A. (1995) Self-control: Beyond commitment. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18:109–59. [WAM]Google Scholar
Mello, N. K. & Mendelson, J. H. (1972) Drinking patterns during contingent and non-contingent alcohol acquisition. Psychosomatic Medicine 34:139–64. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, N. & Chappel, J. (1991) History of the disease concept. Psychiatric Annals 21:196–205. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, J. B. & Stewart, J. (1990) Facilitation of sexual behaviors in the male rat associated with intra-VTA injections of opiates. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 35:643–50. [TER]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Navarick, D. J. & Fantino, E. (1976) Self control and general models of choice. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 2:75–87. [EF]Google Scholar
Nestler, E. J., Hope, B. T. & Widnell, K. L. (1993) Drug addiction: A model for the molecular basis of neural plasticity. Neuron 11:995–1006. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nevin, J. A. (1992) Behavioral contrast and behavioral momentum. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 18:126–33. [JAN]Google Scholar
Nevin, J. A., Tota, M. E., Torquato, R. D. & Shull, R. L. (1990) Alternative reinforcement increases resistance to change: Pavlovian or operant contingencies? Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 53:359–79. [JAN]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nocjar, C., Panksepp, J. & Conner, R. L. (1995) Effect of chronic psychostimulant and opiate treatment on subsequent long-term appetitive behaviors for drug, sexual and food reward: Interaction with environmental variables. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 21:1466. [TER]Google Scholar
Norris, E. & Grant, D. (1947) Eyelid conditioning as affected by verbally induced inhibitory set and counter reinforcement. American Journal of Psychology 61:37–49. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orford, J. (1985) Excessive appetites: A psychological view of addictions. Wiley. [JO]Google Scholar
Orphanides, A. & Zervos, D. (1995) Rational addiction with learning and regret. Journal of Political Economy 103:739–58. [DIL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parker, H., Bakx, K. & Newcombe, R. (1988) Living with heroin: The impact of a drugs “epidemic” on an English community. Open University Press. [JO]Google Scholar
Pattison, E. M., Sobell, M. B. & Sobell, L. C. (1977) Emerging concepts of alcohol dependence. Springer-Verlag. [REV]Google Scholar
Pavlov, I. V. (1927) Conditioned reflexes. Oxford University Press. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Peele, S. (1987) A moral vision of addiction: How people's values determine whether they become and remain addicts. The Journal of Drug Issues 17:187–215. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pequignot, G., Tuyns, A. J. & Berta, J. L. (1978) Ascitic cirrhosis in relation to alcohol consumption. International Journal of Epidemiology 7:113–20. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pittman, D. J. & Snyder, C. R., eds. (1962) Society, culture, and drinking patterns. Southern Illinois University Press. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Plaud, J. J. & O'Donohue, W. (1991) Mathematical statements in the experimental analysis of behavior. Psychological Record 41:385–400. [JJP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Popham, R. E., Schmidt, W. & de Lint, J. (1976) The effects of legal restraint on drinking. In: The biology of alcoholism: vol. 4. Social aspects of alcoholism, ed. Kissin, B. & Begleiter, H.. Plenum. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Prelec, D. (1982) Matching, maximizing, and the hyperbolic reinforcement feedback function. Psychological Reivew 89:189–230. [rGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Preston, R. A. & Fantino, E. (1991) Conditioned reinforcement value and choice. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 55:155–75. [EF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prochaska, J. O. & DiClemente, C. C. (1984) The transtheoretical approach: Crossing traditional boundaries of therapy. Dow Jones/Irwin. [JO]Google Scholar
Prochaska, J. O. & DiClemente, C. C. (1986) Toward a comprehensive model of change. In: Treating addictive behaviors, ed. Miller, W. & Heather, N.. Plenum. [RMS]Google Scholar
Prochaska, J. O., DiClemente, C. C. & Norcross, J. C. (1992) In search of how people change. American Psychologist 47:1102–14. [rGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rachlin, H. (1990) Why do people gamble and keep gambling despite heavy losses? Psychological Science 5:294–97. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rachlin, H. (1995a) Self-control: Beyond commitment. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18:109–59. [CA]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rachlin, H. (1995b) The value of temporal patterns of behavior. Current Contents 4:1188–92. [rGMH]Google Scholar
Rachlin, H. & Green, L. (1972) Commitment, choice and self control. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 17:15–22. [aGMH, MNB, EF, AWL, RMS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rachlin, H., Green, L., Kagel, J. H. & Battalio, R. C. (1976) Economic demand theory and psychological studies of choice. In: The psychology of learning and motivation, ed. Bower, G. H.. 10:129–154. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rachlin, H., Green, L. & Tormey, B. (1988) Is there a decisive test between matching and maximizing? Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 50:113–23. [REV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rachlin, H. & Siegel, E. (1994) Temporal patterning in probabilistic choice. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 59:161–76. [MNB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rescorla, R. A. (1988) Pavlovian conditioning: It's not what you think it is. American Psychologist 43:151–60. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rinsky, J., Wikler, A., Way, J. & McFarland, D. J. (1979) “Mental set” in controls, postalcoholics, chronic schizophrenics and organics. Biological Psychiatry 14:181–91. [DM]Google ScholarPubMed
Robins, L. (1993) Vietnam veterans' rapid recovery from heroin addiction: A fluke or normal expectation? Addiction 88:1041–54. [rGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robins, L. N., Davis, D. H. & Goodwin, D. W. (1974) Drug use by U. S. army enlisted men in Vietnam: A follow-up on their return home. American Journal of Epidemiology 99:235–49. [arGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robins, L. N., Helzer, J. E. & Davis, D. H. (1975) Narcotic use in Southeast Asia and afterward. Archives of General Psychiatry 32:955–61. [arGMH, DM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robins, L., Helzer, J. E., Hesselbrock, M. & Wish, E. (1980) Vietnam veterans three years after Vietnam: How our study changed our view of heroin. In: The yearbook of substance use and abuse, vol. 2, ed. Brill, L. & Winick, C.. Human Sciences Press. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Robins, L. N. & Murphy, G. E. (1967) Drug use in a normal population of young Negro men. American Journal of Public Health 57:1580–96. [rGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, T. E. & Berridge, K. C. (1993) The neural basis of drug craving: An incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. Brain Research Reviews 18:247–91. (arGMH. KCB. TER. RMS])CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Room, R. (1983) Sociological aspects of the disease concept of alcoholism. In: Research advances in alcoholism and drug problems, vol. 7, ed. Smart, R. G., Glaser, F. B., Israel, Y., Kalant, H., Popham, R. E. & Schmidt, W.. Plenum. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Rosenblatt, R. (1994) How do tobacco executives live with themselves? The New York Tunes Magazine, 03 20, pp. 34, 76. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Roth, L. (1954) I'll cry tomorrow. Frederick Fell Inc. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Rothman, R., Gorelick, D., Baumann, M., Cuo, X., Herning, R., Pickworth, W., Gendron, T., Keoppl, B., Thomson, L. & Hennignfield, J. (1984) Lack of evidence for context-dependent cocaine-induced sensitization in humans: Preliminary studies. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 49:583–88. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sacks, O. (1995) An anthropologist on Mars. Knopf. [rGMH]Google Scholar
Schachter, S., Silverstein, B. & Perlick, D. (1977) Psychological and pharmacological explanations of smoking. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 106:31–40. [rGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmidt, W. & Popham, R. E. (1976) Impressions of Jewish alcoholics. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 37:931–39. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schuckit, M. A. (1994). Low level of response to alcohol as a predictor of future alcoholism. American Journal of Psychiatry 151:184–89. [aGMH]Google ScholarPubMed
Seeley, J. R. (1960) Death by liver cirrhosis and the price of beverage alcohol. Canadian Medical Association Journal 83:1361–66. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Self, D. & Nestler, E. J. (1995) Molecular mechanisms of drug reinforcement and addiction. Annual Review of Neuroscience 18:463–96. [SEH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shizgal, P. & Conover, K. (1996) Neural computation of utility. Current Directions in Psychological Science 15(2):37–43. [PS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sidman, M. (1960) Tactics of scientific research: Evaluating experimental data in psychology. Basic Books. [SAV]Google Scholar
Sidman, M. (1990) Equivalence relations: Where do diey come from? In: Behavior analysis in theory and practice, ed. Lejeune, H. & Blackman, D. E.. Erlbaum. [JAN]Google Scholar
Siegel, S. (1975) Evidence from rats that morphine tolerance is a learned response. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 89:498–506. [JAN]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skinner, B. F. (1953) Science and human behavior. Free Press. [aGMH, TER]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1969) An operant analysis of problem solving. In: Contingencies of reinforcement, ed. Skinner, B. F.. Appleton. [MNB]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1974) About behaviorism. Knopf. [JJP]Google Scholar
Sobell, M. B. & Sobell, L. C. (1984) The aftermath of heresy: A response to Pendery et al.'s (1982) critique of “Individualized behavior therapy for alcolholics.” Behavior Research and Therapy 22:413–40. [REV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steele, C. M. & Josephs, R. A. (1990) Alcohol myopia. American Psychologist 45:921–33. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stein, B. (1988) The lure of drugs: They “organize” an addict's life. Newsday, 12 4:6. [REF]Google Scholar
Stephens, R. C. (1991) The street addict role. State University of New York Press. [arGMH]Google Scholar
Stewart, J. (1992) Conditioned stimulus control of sensitization of the behavioral activating effects of opiate and stimulant drugs. In: Learning and memory: Behavioral and biological substrates, ed. Gormezano, I. & Wasserman, E. A.. Erlbaum. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Stewart, J., de Wit, H. & Eikelboom, R. (1984) Role of unconditioned and conditioned drug effects in the self-administration of opiates and stimulants. Psychological Review 91:251–68. (aGMH, PS])CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stigler, G. & Becker, G. (1977) De gustibus non est disputandmn. American Economic Review 67:76–90. [DIL, REV, rGMH]Google Scholar
Stockwell, T. R., Hodgson, R. J., Rankin, H. J. & Taylor, C. (1982) Alcohol dependence, beliefs and the priming effect. Behaviour Research and Therapy 20:513–22. [PS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sue, D. (1987) Use and abuse of alcohol by Asian Americans. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 19:57–66. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sully, J. (1884) Outlines of psychology. Appleton. [GA]Google Scholar
Taylor, A. (1993) Women drug users: An ethnography of a female injecting community. Clarendon. [JO]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Terris, M. (1967) Epidemiology of cirrhosis of the liver: National mortality data. American Journal of Public Health 57:2076–88. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
The New York Times (1994) Parish priest is sentenced in sexual assault on boys. 04 15, p. B5. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Thombs, D. L. (1994) Introduction to addictive behaviors. Guilford Press. [aGMH, DIL]Google Scholar
Tiffany, S. T. (1990) A cognitive model of drug urges and drug-use behavior: Role of automatic and nonautomatic processes. Psychological Review 97:147–68. [aGMH, RJM, RMS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Toates, F. (1994) Comparing motivational systems–an incentive motivation perspective. In: Appetite: Neural and behavioural bases, ed. Legg, C. R. & Booth, D. A.. Oxford University Press. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Topper, M. D. (1985) Navajo “alcoholism”: Drinking, alcohol abuse, and treatment in a changing cultural environment. In: The American experience with alcohol: Contrasting cultural perspectives, ed. Bennett, L. A. & Ame, G. M.. Plenum. [REF]Google Scholar
Trice, H. M. & Sonnenstuhl, W. J. (1990) On the construction of drinking norms in work organizations. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 51:201–20. [JO]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turkkan, J. S. (1988) Psychophysiological effects of oral ethanol in alcoholics and social drinkers. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research 12:30–38. [rGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1989) Reducing the health consequences of smoking: 25 years of progress. DHHS Publication No. [CDC] 89–84111. [aGMH]Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1993) Eighth special report to the U.S. Congress on alcohol and health. NIH Publication No. 94–3699. [aGMH]Google Scholar
U.S. Public Health Service (1964) Smoking and health: Report of the advisory committee to the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service. PHS Publication No. 1103. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Vaillant, G. E. & Milofsky, E. S. (1982a) The etiology of alcoholism. American Psychologist 37:494–503. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vaillant, G. E. & Milofsky, E. S. (1982b) Natural history of male alcoholism: 4. Paths to recovery. Archives of General Psychiatry 39:127–33. [rGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van, Haaren, Kop, P. & Van der Shoot, F. (1985) Operant-Pavlovian interaction: The effect of number of stimuli with free-food depends on the operant baseline. Behavioural Processes 10:53–61. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Vaughan, W. Jr (1981) Melioration, matching, and maximization. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 36:141–49. [GWH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vaughan, W. Jr & Herrnstein, R. J. (1987) Stability, melioration, and natural selection. In: Advances in behavioral economics, vol. 1, ed. Green, L. & Kagel, J. H.. Ablex. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Vuchinich, R. E. & Tucker, J. A. (1988) Contributions from behavioral theories of choice to an analysis of alcohol abuse. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 97:181–95. [STH. REV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vuchinich, R. E. & Tucker, J. A. (in press) The molar context of alcohol abuse. In: Advances in behavioral economics: vol. 3: Substance use and abuse, ed. Green, L. & Kagel, J.. Ablex. [REV]Google Scholar
Warner, J. (1994) “Resolv'd to drink no more”: Addiction as a preindustrial construct. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 55:685–91. [REV]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weissman, S. M. (1989) His brother's keeper. International University Press. [arGMH]Google Scholar
Wikler, A. (1952) A psychodynamic study of a patient during experimental selfregulated re-addiction to morphine. Psychiatric Quarterly 26:270–93. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wikler, A. (1965) Conditioning factors in opiate addiction and relapse. In: Narcotics, ed. Wiher, D. I. & Kassebaum, G.. McCraw-Hill. [JAN]Google Scholar
Williams, B. A. (1988) Reinforcement, choice, and response strength. In: Stevens' handbook of experimental psychology: vol. 2. Learning and cognition, 2d ed., ed. Atkinson, R. C., Herrnstein, R. J., Lindzey, G., & Luce, R. D.. Wiley. [arGMH, GA]Google Scholar
Williams, W. A. & Fantino, E. (1994) Delay reduction and optimal foraging: Variable-ratio search in a foraging analogue. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 61:455–77. [EF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, W. A. & Fantino, E. (in press) Response-dependent prechoice effects on foraging-related choice. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 65. [EF]Google Scholar
Winick, C. (1961) Physician narcotic addicts. Social Problems 9:174–86. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wise, R. A. (1988) The neurobiology of craving: Implications for the understanding and treatment of addiction. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 97:118–32. [aGMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wise, R. – Bozarth, M. (1987) A psychomotor stimulant theory of addiction. Psychological Review 94:469–92. [aGMH, RMS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wise, R. A. – Munn, E. (1995) Withdrawal from chronic amphetamine elevates brain reward self-stimulation threshold. Psychopharmacology 117:130–36. [arGMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
World Health Organization (1992) Classification of mental and behavioural disorders (ICD-10): Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. Geneva. [aGMH]Google Scholar
Young, A. M. & Herling, S. (1986) Drugs as reinforcers. In: Behavioral analysis of drug dependence, ed. Goldberg, S. R. & Stolerman, I. P.. Academic Press. [aGMH]Google Scholar