Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-hc48f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T03:14:24.143Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Age preferences in mates reflect sex differences in human reproductive strategies

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 May 2011

Douglas T. Kenrick  and
Richard C. Keefe
Douglas T. Kenrick
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, Electronic mail: atdtk@asuacad.bitnet
Richard C. Keefe
Affiliation:
Department of Behavioral Science, Scottsdale College, Scottsdale, AZ 85256, Electronic mail: keefe@scc.bitnet
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The finding that women are attracted to men older than themselves whereas men are attracted to relatively younger women has been explained by social psychologists in terms of economic exchange rooted in traditional sex-role norms. An alternative evolutionary model suggests that males and females follow different reproductive strategies, and predicts a more complex relationship between gender and age preferences. In particular, males' preferences for relatively younger females should be minimal during early mating years, but should become more pronounced as the male gets older. Young females are expected to prefer somewhat older males during their early years and to change less as they age. We briefly review relevant theory and present results of six studies testing this prediction. Study 1 finds support for this gender-differentiated prediction in age preferences expressed in personal advertisements. Study 2 supports the prediction with marriage statistics from two U.S. cities. Study 3 examines the cross-generational robustness of the phenomenon, and finds the same pattern in marriage statistics from 1923. Study 4 replicates Study 1 using matrimonial advertisements from two European countries, and from India. Study 5 finds a consistent pattern in marriages recorded from 1913 through 1939 on a small island in the Philippines. Study 6 reveals the same pattern in singles advertisements placed by financially successful American women and men. We consider the limitations of previous normative and evolutionary explanations of age preferences and discuss the advantages of expanding previous models to include the life history perspective.

Keywords

attractionethological theoryevolutiongender differenceslife history strategiesmate selectionsexual selectionsimilaritysocial exchange
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 15 , Issue 1 , March 1992 , pp. 75 - 91
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1992

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Acsadi, G. & Nemeskeri, J. (1970) History of human life span and mortality. Akademiai Kiado. [rDTK]Google Scholar
Alatalo, R. V., Lundberg, A. & Glynn, C. (1986) Female pied flycatchers choose territory quality and not male characteristics. Nature 323:323–152. [AJN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alexander, R. D. (1987) The biology of moral systems. Aldine de Gruyter. [aDTK, JAS]Google Scholar
Alley, T. R. (1983) Growth-produced changes in body shape and size as determinants of perceived age and adult caregiving. Child Development 54:54–241. [TRA]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alley, T. R. (1988) The effects of growth and aging on facial aesthetics. In: Social and applied aspects of perceiving faces, ed. Alley, T. R.. Erlbaum. [TRA]Google Scholar
Alley, T. R. & Cunningham, M. R. (1991) Average faces are attractive, but very attractive faces are not average. Psychological Science 2:2–123. [TRA]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amsell, A. & Rashotte, M. E. (1984) Mechanisms of adaptive behavior: Clark L. Hull's theoretical papers, with commentary. Columbia University Press. [DAD]Google Scholar
Anderson, C. M. (1986) Female age: Male preferences and reproductive success in primates. International Journal of Primatology 7:7–305. [CAM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, J. L. & Crawford, C. B. (1988) Anorexia nervosa: Models of the disorder as an adaptation for reproductive suppression. Canadian Psychological Association Symposium on Testing Evolutionary Hypotheses about Pathological Behaviors. Montreal, June 11. [CBC]Google Scholar
Anderson, N. H. (1981) Foundations of information integration theory. Academic Press. [RL]Google Scholar
Antill, J. K. (1983) Sex-role complementarity versus similarity in married couples. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 45:45–145. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashmore, R. D. (1990) Sex, gender and the individual. In: Handbook of personality: Theory and research, ed. Pervin, L. A.. Guilford Press. [RL]Google Scholar
Atkinson, M. P. & Glass, B. L. (1985) Marital age heterogamy and homogamy, 1900 to 1980. Journal of Marriage and the Family 47:685–91, [GS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Austrom, D. & Hanel, K. (1985) Psychological issues of single life in Canada: An exploratory study. International Journal of Women's Studies 8:8–12. [DWR]Google Scholar
Bancroft, J. (1978) The relationship between hormones and sexual behavior in humans. In: Biological determinants of sexual behavior, ed. Hutchinson, J. B.. Wiley. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Barash, D. P. (1982) Sociobiology and behavior, 2nd ed.Elsevier. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Barkow, J. H. (1989a) Darwin, sex and status: Biological approaches to mind and culture. University of Toronto Press. [LM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barkow, J. H. (1989b) The elastic between genes and culture. Ethology and Sociobiology 10:10–111. [rDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barlow, D., Reynolds, J. & Agras, S. (1973) Gender identity change in a transsexual. Archives of General Psychiatry 28:28–569. [JMT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Basolo, A. L. (1990) Female preference predates the evolution of the sword in swordtail fish. Science 250:250–808. [AJN]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Batson, C. D. (1987) Prosocial motivation: Is it ever truly altruistic? Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 20:20–65. [PB]Google Scholar
Beach, F. A. (1947) Evolutionary changes in the physiological control of mating behavior in mammals. Psychological Review 54:54–279. [DAD]Google ScholarPubMed
Bell, A. P. & Weinberg, M. S. (1978) Homosexualities. Simon & Schuster. [JMT]Google Scholar
Belsky, J., Steinberg, L. & Draper, P. (in press) Childhood experience, interpersonal development, and reproductive strategy: An evolutionary theory of socialization. Child Development. [LM]Google Scholar
Berlin, B. & Kay, P. (1969) Basic color terms. University of California Press. [DCF]Google Scholar
Bernard, J. (1979) Forward. In: Divorce and separation, ed. Levinger, G. & Moles, O.. Basic Books. [JMT]Google Scholar
Berry, D. S. & Zebrowitz-MeArthur, L. (1988) The impact of age-related craniofacial changes on social perception. In: Social and applied aspects of perceiving faces, ed. Alley, T. R.. Erlbaum. [TRA]Google Scholar
Berscheid, E. (1985) Interpersonal attraction. In: Handbook of social psychology, vol. 2, 3rd ed., ed. Linzey, G. & Aronson, E.. Random House. [RL]Google Scholar
Betzig, L. L. (1982) Despotism and differential reproduction: A cross-cultural correlation of conflict asymmetry. Ethology and Sociobiology 3:3–209. [JMT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Betzig, L. L. (1986) Despotism and differential reproduction. Aldine. [PLvdB]Google Scholar
Betzig, L. L., Borgerhoff Mulder, M. & Turke, P., eds. (1988) Human reproductive behavior. Cambridge University Press. [PLvdB]Google Scholar
Blain, J. & Barkow, J. (1988) Father involvement, reproductive strategies, and the sensitive period. In: Sociobiological perspectives on human development, ed. MacDonald, K. B.. Springer-Verlag. [LM]Google Scholar
Blakeslee, S. (1991) Research on birth defects turns to flaws in sperm. New York Times Medical Science January 1, p. 1. [DB]Google Scholar
Bleier, R. (1984) Science and gender: A critique of biology and its theories on women. Pergamon Press. [BMB]Google Scholar
Bloom, D. & Trussell, J. (1984) What are the determinants of delayed childbearing and permanent childlessness in the United States? Demography 21:21–591. [JMT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blumstein, P. & Schwartz, P. (1983) American couples. Morrow, [JMT]Google Scholar
Bolig, R., Stein, P. J. & McKenry, P. C. (1984) The self-advertisement approach to dating: Male-female differences. Family Relations 33:33–587. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boorstin, D. J. (1983) The discoverers. Random House. [rDTK]Google Scholar
Borgerhoff Mulder, M. (1988) Kipsigis bridewealth payments. In: Human reproductive behaviour, ed. Betzig, L. L., Mulder, M. Borgerhoff & Turke, P.. Cambridge University Press. [PLvdB]Google Scholar
Boyd, R. & Richerson, P. J. (1985) Culture and the evolutionary process. University of Chicago Press. [LM]Google Scholar
Brehm, S. S. (1985) Intimate relationships. Random House. [aDTK, DCF]Google Scholar
Brewer, M. B. & Lui, L. N. (1989) The primacy of age and sex in the structure of person categories. Social Cognition 7:7–262. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broude, G. J. (1987) The relationship of marital intimacy and aloofness to social environment: A hologeistic study. Behavior Science Research 21:21–50. [GJB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burley, N. (1983) The meaning of assortative mating. Ethology and Sociobiology 4:4–191. [LM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buss, D. M. (1987) Sex differences in human mate selection criteria: An evolutionary perspective. In: Sociobiology and Psychology, ed. Crawford, C., Smith, M. & Krebs, D.. Erlbaum. [PAR, NWT]Google Scholar
Buss, D. M. (1989) Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12:12–1. [arDTK, NDG, LM, DWR, JAS, JMT, KW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buss, D. M. (1991) Evolutionary personality psychology. Annual Review of Psychology 32:32–459. [RL]Google Scholar
Buss, D. M. & Barnes, M. F. (1986) Preferences in human mate selection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50:50–559. [aDTK, LM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buss, D. M. & Schmitt, D. (1989) Short-term and long-term mating tactics in humans. Presented at Human Behavior and Evolution Society first annual meeting. Northwestern University, August. [LM]Google Scholar
Byrne, D. (1971) The attraction paradigm. Academic Press. [aDTK, JAS]Google Scholar
Bytheway, W. R. (1981) The variation with age of age differences in marriage. Journal of Marriage and the Family 43:43–923. [rDTK, RS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cameron, C., Oskamp, S. & Sparks, W. (1977) Courtship American style - newspaper ads. Family Coordinator 26:26–27. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, D. T. (1975) On the conflicts between biological and social evolution and between psychology and moral tradition. American Psychologist 30:30–1103. [rDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, H. & Glick, P. C. (1976) Marriage and divorce: A social and economic study, rev. ed. Harvard University Press. [rDTK, RS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chagnon, N. A. (1967) Yanomamo: The fierce people. Holt, Rinehart & Winston. [PLvdB]Google Scholar
Chagnon, N. A. (1974) Studying the Yanomamo. Holt, Rinehart & Winston. [PLvdB]Google Scholar
Chagnon, N. A. (1988) Male Yanomamo manipulations of kinship classifications of female kin for reproductive advantage. In: Human reproductive behavior: A Darwinian perspective, ed. Betzig, L., M., Borgerhoff Mulder & Turke, P.. Cambridge University Press. [DS]Google Scholar
Chagnon, N. A. & Irons, W. (1979) Evolutionary biology and human social behavior. Duxbury Press. [PLvdB]Google Scholar
Chambers, K. C. & Phoenix, C. H. (1982) Sexual behavior in old male rhesus monkeys: Influence of familiarity and age of female partners. Archives of Sexual behavior 11:11–299. [DB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, M. S. & Reis, H. T. (1988) Interpersonal processes in close relationships. Annual Review of Psychology 39:39–609. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clutton-Brock, T. H. (1984) Reproductive effort and terminal investment in iteroparous animals. American Naturalist 123:123–212. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H., Guiness, F. E. & Albon, S. D. (1982) Red deer: Behavior and ecology of two sexes. University of Chicago Press. [arDTK]Google Scholar
Coale, A. J., Derneny, P. & Vaughan, B. (1983) Regional model life tables and stable populations, 2nd ed.Academic Press. [GS]Google Scholar
Cohen, S. & Wills, T. A. (1985) Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin 98:98–310. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cook, M. (1984) Issues in person perception. Methuen. [DCF]Google Scholar
Cooper, W. S. (1987) Decision theory as a branch of evolutionary theory: A biological derivation of the savage axioms. Psychological Review 94:94–395. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cosmides, L. & Tooby, J. (1987) From evolution to behavior: Evolutionary psychology as the missing link. In: The latest on the best: Essays on evolution and optimality, ed. Dupre, J.. MIT Press. [JAS, NWT]Google Scholar
Cosmides, L. & Tooby, J. (1989) Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture II, Case study: A computational theory of social exchange. Ethology and Sociobiology 10:10–51. [aDTK, GJB, LM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crawford, C. B. (1989) The theory of evolution: Of what value to psychology? Journal of Comparative Psychology 103:103–4. [CBC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crawford, C. B. & Anderson, J. L. (1988) Testing evolutionary hypotheses about pathological behaviors. Paper presented at meetings of the Canadian Psychological Association, Montreal, June. [JAS]Google Scholar
Crawford, C. B. & Anderson, J. L. (1989) Sociobiology: An environmentalist discipline. American Psychologist 44:44–1449. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crawford, C., Smith, M. & Krebs, D. (1987) Sociobiology and psychology: Ideas, issues and applications. Erlbaum. [LM]Google Scholar
Critelli, J. W. & Waid, D. R. (1980) Physical attractiveness, romantic love, and equity restoration in dating relationships. Journal of Personality Assessment 44:44–624. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cunningham, M. R. (1981) Sociobiology as a supplementary paradigm for social psychological research. In: Review of Personality & Social Psychology 2:69–106, ed. Wheeler, L.. Sage Press. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Cunningham, M. R. (1986) Measuring the physical in physical attractiveness: Quasi-experiments on the Sociobiology of female beauty. Journal of Personality it Social Psychology 50:50–925. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Dabbs, J. M., Frady, R. L., Carr, T. S. & Besch, N. F. (1987) Saliva, testosterone and criminal violence in young adult prison inmates. Psychosomatic Medicine 49:49–174. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daly, M. & Wilson, M. (1983) Seat, evolution, and behavior, 2nd ed.Willard Grant Press. [arDTK, JAS]Google Scholar
Daly, M. & Wilson, M. (1983) Sex, evolution, and behavior. Duxbury. [JMT]Google Scholar
Daly, M. & Wilson, M. (1988a) Evolutionary social psychology and family homicide. Science 242:242–519. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daly, M. & Wilson, M. (1988b) Homicide. Aldine de Gruyter. [arDTK, NWT]Google ScholarPubMed
Darden, D. K. & Koski, P. R. (1988) Using the personal ads: A deviant activity? Deviant behavior 9:9–383. [DWR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darwin, C. (1859) On the origin of the species. Murray. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1874) The descent of man and selection in relation to sex, 2nd ed.John Murray. [AJN]Google Scholar
Davidson, A. R. & Jaccard, J. J. (1974) Population psychology: A new look at an old problem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 30:30–1073. [LM]Google Scholar
Davis, K. (1985) The meaning and significance of marriage in contemporary society. In: Contemporary Marriage, ed. Davis, K.. Russell Sage. [JMT]Google Scholar
Denney, N. W., Field, J. K. & Quadagno, D. (1984) Sex differences in sexual needs and desires. Archives of Sexual behavior 13:13–233. [JMT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census (1930) Abstract of the fifteenth census of the United States. U. S. Government Printing Office. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census (1984) Statistical abstract of the United States. U. S. Government Printing Office. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Deutsch, F. M., Zalenski, C. M. & Clark, M. E. (1986) Is there a double standard of aging? Journal of Applied Social Psychology 16:16–771. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Dewsbury, D. A. (1984) Comparative psychology in the twentieth century. Van Nostrand Reinhold. [DAD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diener, E., Sandvik, E. & Larsen, R. J. (1985) Age and sex effects for affect intensity. Developmental Psychology 21:21–542. [JPR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Draper, P. (1989) African marriage systems: Perspectives from evolutionary ecology. Ethology and Sociobiology 10(1):145–69. [PLvdB, HH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Draper, P. & Belsky, J. (1990) Personality development in evolutionary perspective. Journal of Personality 58:58–141. [LM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Draper, P. & Harpending, H. (1988) A sociobiological perspective on the development of human reproductive strategies. In: Sociobiological perspectives on human development, ed. MacDonald, K. B.. Springer-Verlag, [LM]Google Scholar
Drickamer, L. C. (1974) Social rank, observability, and sexual behavior of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatto). Journal of Reproduction and Fertility 32:32–117. [GL]Google Scholar
Durham, W. (1979) The adaptive significance of cultural behavior. Human Ecology 4:4–89. [rDTK]Google Scholar
Eckland, B. K. (1968) Theories of mate selection. Eugenics Quarterly 15:71– 84. [LM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edwards, J. N. (1969) Familial behavior as social exchange. Journal of Marriage and the Family 31:31–518. [RS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. (1989) Human ethology. Aldine de Gruyter. [TRA]Google Scholar
Ellis, B. & Symons, D. (1990) Sex differences in sexual fantasy: An evolutionary psychological approach. Journal of Sex Research 27:27–527. [JMT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Epstein, S. (1979) The stability of behavior: 1. On predicting most of the people much of the time. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 37:37–1097. [rDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (1940) The Nuer. Oxford University Press. [PLvdB]Google Scholar
Eysenck, H. J. (1988) Personality and aging: An exploratory analysis. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality 3:3–11. [JPR]Google Scholar
Fauss, R. (1988) Zur Bedeutung des Gesichts fur die Parnerwahl. Homo 37:37–188. [TRA]Google Scholar
Finch, C. E. & Gosden, R. G. (1986) Animal models for the human menopause. In: Aging, reproduction, and the climacteric, ed. Mastroianni, L. Jr. & Paulsen, C. A.. Plenum Press. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Fisher, R. A. (1930) The genetical theory of natural selection. Oxford University Press. [aDTK, KW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fiske, S. T. & Taylor, S. E. (1991) Social cognition, 2nd ed.McGraw-Hill. [RL]Google Scholar
Flinn, M. V. (1986) Correlates of reproductive success in a Caribbean village. Human Ecology 14:14–225. [LM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fortes, M. (1949) The web of kinship among the Tallensi. Oxford University Press. [PLvdB]Google Scholar
Frank, R. H. (1988) Passions within reason. W. W. Norton. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Funder, D. C. (1987) ErrorsVmd mistakes: Evaluating the accuracy of social judgment. Psychological Bulletin 101:101–75. [rDTK, DCF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Funder, D. C. (1989) Accuracy in personality judgment and the dancing bear. In: Personality research for the 1990's, ed. Buss, D. & Cantor, N.. Springer-Verlag. [DCF]Google Scholar
Funder, D. C. & Ozer, D. J. (1983) Behavior as a function of the situation. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 44:44–107. [rDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gergen, K. J. (1990) Metaphor, metatheory and the social world. In: Metaphors in the history of psychology, ed. Leary, D. E.. Cambridge University Press. [BMB]Google Scholar
Gergen, K. J. (1991) Emerging challenges for theory and psychology. Theory and Psychology 1:1–13. [BMB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghiselin, M. T. (1989) Darwinism versus neo-Darwinism in the study of human mate preferences. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12:20. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibson, G. D. (1959) Herero marriage. Rhodes Livingstone Journal 24:24–1. [HH]Google Scholar
Gladue, B. A. (1989) Missing link in mate preference studies: Reproduction. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12:21. [BMB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glenn, N. D. (1989) Intersocietal variation in the mate preferences of males and females. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12:12–21. [aDTK, NDG, JMT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goffman, E. (1952) On cooling the mark out: Some aspects of adaptation to failure. Psychiatry 15:15–451. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldman, N., Westoff, C. F. & Hammerslough, C. (1984) Demography of the marriage market in the United States. Population Index 50:50–2. [JMT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldschmidt, W. (1969) Game theory, cultural values and the bride price in Africa. In: Game theory in the behavioral sciences, ed. Buchler, I. R. & Nutini, H. G.. University of Pennsylvania Press. [PLvdB]Google Scholar
Goodall, J. (1986) The chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of behavior. Bellknap Press. [DB]Google Scholar
Goody, J. & Tarnbiah, S. J. (1973) Bridewealth and dowry. Cambridge University Press. [PLvdB]Google Scholar
Gottesman, I. L., Shields, J. & Hanson, D. R. (1982) Schizophrenia: The epigenetic puzzle. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge). [rDTK]Google Scholar
Gould, S. J. (1977) Ontogeny and phylogeny. Harvard University Press. [TRA]Google Scholar
Gould, S. J. (1981) The mismeasure of man. W. W. Norton. [DB]Google Scholar
Gould, S. J. & Lewontin, R. C. (1979) The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: A critique of the adaptationist programme. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 205:205–581. [CAM]Google Scholar
Grammer, K. (1989) Human courtship: Biological bases and cognitive processing. In: The sociobiology of sexual and reproductive strategies, ed. A. Rasa, C. Vogel & E. Volland. [KG]Google Scholar
Green, R. (1987) The “sissy boy syndrome” and the development of homosexuality. Yale University Press. [JMT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenblatt, H. N. & Smith, R. E. (1971) Marriage and divorce in California, 1966–1969. State of California, Dept. of Public Health, Sacramento. [RS]Google Scholar
Gross, M. (1984) Sunfish, salmon, and the evolution of alternative reproductive strategies and tactics in fishes. In: Fish reproduction: Strategies and tactics, ed. Potts, G. & Wootton, R.. Academic Press. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Gross, M. & Averill, M. B. (1983) Evolution and the patriarchal myths of scarcity and competition. In: Discovering reality: Feminist perspectives on epistemology, metaphysics, methodology, and philosophy of science, ed. S. Harding & M. B. Hintikka. D. Reidel. [BMB]Google Scholar
Guttentag, M. & Secord, P. F. (1983) Too many women? The sex ratio question. Sage. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Hamilton, W. D. (1964) The genetic evolution of social behavior. Journal of Theoretical Biology 7:7–1. [PB]Google Scholar
Haraway, D. (1990) Investment strategies for the evolving portfolio of primate females. In: Body/politics: Women and the discourses of science, ed. Jacobus, M., Keller, E. F., & Shuttleworth, S.. Routledge. [BMB]Google Scholar
Haraway, D. (1991) Simians, cyborgs, and women: The reinvention of nature. Routledge. [BMB]Google Scholar
Harman, S. M. (1981) Testosterone replacement therapy. Medical Aspects of Human Sexuality 15(9):111–12. [DB]Google Scholar
Harpending, H. & Pennington, R. (1991) Age structure and sex biased mortality among Ovaherero pastoralists. Human Biology 63:63–327. [HH]Google ScholarPubMed
Harrison, A. A. & Saeed, L. (1977) Let's make a deal: Analysis of revelations and stipulations in lonely hearts advertisements. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 35:35–257. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hass, P. H. (1974) Wanted and unwanted pregnancies: A fertility decisionmaking model. Journal of Social Issues 30:30–125. [LM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hendrick, S. S. (1981) Self-disclosure and marital satisfaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 40:40–1150. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, E. & Hill, M. A. (1988) Resources and reproductive effort: The positive effect of doing relatively well. Presented at the Evolutionary Psychology and Psychiatry Conference, Ann Arbor, MI, October. [LM]Google Scholar
Hill, J. (1984) Prestige and reproductive success in man. Ethology and Sociobiology 5:5–77. [aDTK, LM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hinde, R. A. (1983) Why do the sexes behave differently in close relationships? Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 1:1–471. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Hogan, R. & Emler, N. P. (1978) The biases in contemporary social psychology. Social Research 45:45–479. [rDTK]Google Scholar
Horvath, T. (1979) Correlates of physical beauty in men and women. Social Behavior and Personality 7:7–145. [TRA]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
House, J. S., Robbins, C. & Metzner, H. L. (1982) The association of social relationships with mortality: Prospective evidence from the Tecumseh Community Health Study. American Journal of Epidemiology 116:116–123. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Houseknecht, S. K. (1979) Timing of the decision to remain voluntarily childless: Evidence for continuous socialization. Psychology of Women Quarterly 4:4–81. [LM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Howard, L. & Zeman, N. (1991) A main-squeeze poll. Newsweek, March 25, p. 8. [DWR]Google Scholar
Hubbard, R. (1983) Have only men evolved? In: Discovering reality: Feminist perspectives on epistemology, metaphysics, methodology, and philosophy of science, ed. Harding, S. & Hintikka, M. B.. D. Reidel. [BMB]Google Scholar
Huston, T. L. & Levinger, G. (1978) Interpersonal attraction and relationships. Annual Review of Psychology 29:29–115. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Irons, W. (1975) The Yomut Turkmen. Anthropological paper No. 58, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan. [PLvdB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Irons, W. (1989) Mating preference surveys: Ethnographic follow-up would be a good next step. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12:24. [DWR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobson, P. H. (1959) American marriage and divorce. Rinehart. [GL]Google Scholar
James, W. (1890) Principles of psychology. Holt. [aDTK]Google Scholar
James, W. H. (1974) Marital coital rates, spouses' ages, family size and social class. Journal of Sex Research 10:10–205. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Janson-Smith, D. (1980) Sociobiology: So what? In: Alice through the microscope: The power of science over women's lives, ed. Birke, L., Faulkner, W., Best, S., Janson-Smith, D., & Overfield, K.. Virago. [BMB]Google Scholar
Jencks, C. (1979) Who gets ahead? The determinants of economic success in America. Basic Books. [aDTK, JAS]Google Scholar
Jussim, L. (1991) Social perception and social reality: A reflection-construction model. Psychological Review 98:98–54. [DCF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelley, K. & Byrne, D. (1992) Exploring human sexuality. Prentice Hall. [DB]Google Scholar
Kenrick, D. T. (1986) How strong is the case against contemporary social and personality psychology: A response to Carlson. Journal of Personality it Social Psychology 50:50–839. [rDTK]Google Scholar
Kenrick, D. T. (1987) Gender, genes, and the social environment: A biosocial interactionist perspective. Review of Personality & Social Psychology 7:7–14. [arDTK]Google Scholar
Kenrick, D. T. (1989a) Altruism, Darwinism and the gift of Josiah Wedgewood. Comment on Rushton. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12:12–531. [rDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kenrick, D. T. (1989b) Personality and reproductive behavior: Integrating the social psychological and the evolutionary perspectives. In: Sociobiology and the social sciences, ed. Bell, R. W.. Texas Tech Press. [rDTK]Google Scholar
Kenrick, D. T. & Dantchik, A. (1983) Interactions, idiographics, and the social psychological invasion of personality. Journal of Personality 51:51–286. [rDTK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kenrick, D. T. & Funder, D. C. (1988) Profiting from controversy: Lessons from the person-situation debate. American Psychologist 43:43–23. [rDTK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kenrick, D. T. & Funder, D. C. (1991) The person-situation debate: Do traits really exist? In: Contemporary research in personality, ed. Derlega, V., Winstead, B., & Jones, W. H.. Nelson-Hall. [rDTK]Google Scholar
Kenrick, D. T. & Gutierres, S. E. (1980) Contrast effects and judgments of physical attractiveness: When beauty becomes a social problem. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 38:38–131. [rDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kenrick, D. T. & Hogan, R. (1992) Evolution and social cognition. In: The sociobiological imagination, ed. Maxwell, M.. SUNY Press, in press. [rDTK]Google Scholar
Kenrick, D. T. & Keefe, R. C. (1991) Age preferences in mates reflect sex differences in reproductive strategies. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 14:14–1. [DB]Google Scholar
Kenrick, D. T. & Stringfield, D. O. (1980) Personality traits and the eye of the beholder: Crossing some traditional philosophical boundaries in the search for consistency in all of the people. Psychological Review 87:87–88. [rDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kenrick, D. T. & Trost, M. R. (1987) A biosocial theory of heterosexual relationships. In: Females, males, and sexuality: Theory and research, ed. Kelley, K.. State University of New York Press. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Kenrick, D. T. & Trost, M. R. (1989) A reproductive exchange model of heterosexual relationships: Putting proximate economics in ultimate perspective. Review of Personality and Social Psychology 10:10–92. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Kenrick, D. T., Groth, G. E., Trost, M. R. & Sadalla, E. K. (1990) Effects of gender, self-appraisal, and involvement level on mate selection: Integrating sociobiological and social exchange perspectives on relationships, in preparation. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Kenrick, D. T., Gutierres, S. E. & Goldberg, L. (1989) Influence of erotica on ratings of strangers and mates. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 25:25–159. [rDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kenrick, D. T., Montello, D. & MacFarlane, S. (1985) Personality: Social learning, social cognition, or sociobiology? In: Perspectives in Personality (vol. 1), ed. Hogan, R. & Jones, W. H.. JAI Press. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Kenrick, D. T., Neuberg, S., Zierk, K. & Krones, J. (1991) Contrast effects and mate attractiveness: Gender differences in criteria fit an evolutionary model. Unpublished manuscript. Arizona State University. [rDTK]Google Scholar
Kenrick, D. T., Sadalla, E. K., Groth, G. E. & Trost, M. R. (1990) Evolution, traits, and the stages of human courtship: Qualifying the parental investment model. Journal of Personality 58:58–97. [arDTK, LM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lancaster, J. & King, B. (1985) An evolutionary perspective on menopause. In: In her prime, ed. Brown, J. & Kerns, V.. Bergin & Garvey. [rDTK, CAM]Google Scholar
Langlois, J. H. & Roggman, L. A. (1990) Attractive faces are only average. Psychological Science 1:1–115. [aDTK, TRA, DS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leonard, J. L. (1989) Homo sapiens: A good fit to theory, but posing some enigmas. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12:12–26. [aDTK, JAS, WGS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lippa, R. (1990) Gender and social behavior. In: Introduction to social psychology, ed. Lippa, R. A.. Wadsworth. [RL]Google Scholar
Lockard, J. S. & Adams, R. M. (1981) Human serial polygyny: Demographic, reproductive, marital and divorce data. Ethology and Sociobiology 2:2–177. [aDTK, KG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lumsden, C. J. & Wilson, E. O. (1981) Genes, mind, and culture: The revolutionary process. Harvard University Press. [arDTK, KG]Google Scholar
Lumsden, C. J. & Wilson, E. O. (1985) The relation between biological and cultural evolution. Journal of Social and Biological Structures 8:8–343. [rDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mackey, W. C. (1980) A sociobiological perspective on divorce patterns of men in the United States. Journal of Anthropological Research 36:36–419. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mackey, W. C. & Mealey, L. (Submitted) Human sex ratio as a function of the woman's psychodynamics: Empirical tests from three samples. Journal of Personality and Individual Differences. [LM]Google Scholar
Malloy, T. E. & Albright, L. (1990) Interpersonal perception in a social context. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58:58–419. [DCF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Margolin, L. & White, L. (1987) The continuing role of physical attractiveness in marriage. Journal of Marriage 49:49–21. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Mathes, E. W., Brennan, S. M., Haugen, P. M. & Rice, H. B. (1985) Ratings of physical attractiveness as a function of age. Journal of Social Psychology 125:125–157. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maynard Smith, J. (1958) The effects of temperature and of egg-laying on the longevity of Drosophila subobscura. Journal of Experimental Biology 35:35–832. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Mayr, E. (1983) How to carry out the adaptationist paradigm? American Naturalist 121:121–324. [CAM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mazur, A. & Lamb, T. (1980) Testosterone, status, and mood in human males. Hormones and Behavior 14:14–236. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McArthur, L. Z. & Baron, R. M. (1983) Toward an ecological theory of social perception. Psychological Review 90:90–215. [DCF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDougall, W. (1908) Social psychology. Methuen. [aDTK]Google Scholar
McDougall, W. (1930) William McDougall. In: A history of psychology in autobiography, vol. 1, ed. Murchison, C.. Clark University Press. [DAD]Google Scholar
McGrath, J. E. (1982) Dilemmatics. In: Judgment calls in research, ed. McGrath, J. E., Martin, J. & Kukla, R. A.. Sage. [rDTK]Google Scholar
Mead, M. (1928) Coming of age in Samoa. Morrow. [JMT]Google Scholar
Mead, M. (1935) Sex and temperament in three primitive societies. Morrow. [JMT]Google Scholar
Mealey, L. (1985) The relationship between social status and biological success: A case study of the Mormon religious hierarchy. Ethology and Sociobiology 6:6–249. [aDTK, LM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mead, M. (1990) Differential use of reproductive strategies by human groups? Psychological Science 1:1–385. [LM]Google Scholar
Mealey, L. & Mackey, W. C. (1990) Variation in offspring sex ratio in women of differing social status. Ethology and Sociobiology 11:11–83. [LM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mealey, L., Bouchard, T. J. Jr. & Segal, N. (in preparation) Heritable and environmental variables affect reproduction-related behaviors, but not ultimate reproductive success. [LM]Google Scholar
Menken, J. & Larsen, U. (1986) Fertility rates and aging. In: Aging, reproduction, and the climacteric, ed. Mastroianni, L. & Paulsen, C. A.. Plenum Press. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Money, J. (1980) Love and love sickness. Johns Hopkins University Press. [JMT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morawski, J. G. (1985) The measurement of masculinity and femininity: Engendering categorical realities. Journal of Personality 53:53–196. [BMB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morawski, J. G. & Steele, R. S. (1991) The one or the other? Textual analysis of masculine power and feminist empowerment. Theory and Psychology 1:1–107. [BMB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moss, J. J. (1964) Teenage marriage: Cross-national trends and sociological factors in the decision of when to marry. Acta Sociologica 8:8–98. [LM]Google Scholar
Murdock, G. (1949) Social structure. Macmillan. [NWT]Google Scholar
Murdock, G. (1959) Africa: Its peoples and their culture history. McGraw-Hill. [PLvdB]Google Scholar
Nadel, S. F. (1942) A black Byzantium. Oxford University Press. [PLvdB]Google Scholar
Naficy, A. (1981) Mate selection: The relative contributions of age, physical attractiveness, and income to desirability as romantic and marriage partners. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin. [LM]Google Scholar
Nieschlag, E. & Michel, E. (1986) Reproductive functions in grandfathers. In: Aging, reproduction, and the climacteric, ed. Mastroianni, L. Jr., & Paulsen, C. A.. Plenum Press. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Nur, N. (1989) The sociobiology of human mate preference: On testing evolutionary hypotheses. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12:12–28. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nyborg, H. & Boeggild, C. (1989) Mating behavior: Moves of mind or molecules. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12:12–29. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orians, G. H. (1969) On the evolution of mating systems in birds and mammals. American Naturalist 103:103–589. [AJVN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parker, G. A. (1970) Sperm competition and its evolutionary consequences in the insects. Biological Reviews 45:45–525. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Partridge, L. & Farquhar, M. (1981) Sexual activity reduces lifespan of male fruit flies. Nature 294:294–580. [aDtK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Partridge, L. & Harvey, P. H. (1988) The ecological context of life history evolution. Science 241:241–1449. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pennington, R. (1990) The fertility of the Herero and Mbanderu pastoralists of Botswana. Ph.D. thesis, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA. [HH]Google Scholar
Pennington, R. (1991) Child fostering as a reproductive strategy among southern African pastoralists. Ethology and Sociobiology 12:12–83. [HH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pillard, R. & Weinrich, J. (1987) The periodic table model of the gender transpositions: Part I. A theory based on masculinization and defeminization of the brain. Journal of Sex Research 23:23–425. [JMT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plomin, R. (1986) Development, genetics, and psychology. Erlbauni. [JPR]Google Scholar
Plutchik, R. (1980) Emotion: Theory, research, and experience. Academic Press. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Presser, H. B. (1975) Age differences between spouses: Trends, patterns, and social implications. American Behavioral Scientist 19:19–190. [rDTK, RS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pressley, P. H. (1981) Parental effort and the evolution of nest-guarding tactics in the three-spined stickleback. Gasterosteus acculeatus 1. Evolution 35:35–282. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Radcliffe-Brown, A. R. & Forde, D., eds. (1950) African systems of kinship and marriage. Oxford University Press. [PLvdB]Google Scholar
Rajecki, D. W., Bledsoe, S. B. & Rasmussen, J. L. (in press) Successful personal ads: Gender differences and similarities in offers, stipulations, and outcomes. Basic and Applied Social Psychology. [DWR]Google Scholar
Ralls, K. (1976) Mammals in which females are larger than males. Quarterly Review of Biology 51:51–245. [arDTK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Remoff, H. T. (1980) Female choice: An investigation of human breeding strategy. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Rutgers University. [LM]Google Scholar
Resnik, R. (1986) Age related changes in gestation and pregnancy outcome. In: Aging, reproduction, and the climacteric, ed. Mastroianni, L. & Paulsen, C. A.. Plenum Press. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Roe, A. & Simpson, G. G., eds. (1958) Behavior and evolution. Yale University Press. [DAD]Google Scholar
Rosenbaum, M. E. (1986) The repulsion hypothesis: On the nondevelopment of relationships. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 51:51–1156. [rDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenblatt, P. C. (1974) Cross-cultural perspective on attraction. In: Foundations of interpersonal attraction, ed. Huston, T. L.. Academic Press. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Rushton, J. P. (1989) Genetic similarity, human altruism and group selection. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12(3):503–59. [arDTK, LM, JPR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rushton, J. P. (1990) Sir Francis Galton, epigenetic rules, genetic similarity theory, and human life-history analysis. Journal of Personality 58:58–117. [JPR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rushton, J. P. (1991) Do r-K strategies underlie human race differences? Canadian Psychology 32:32–29. [JPR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryan, M. J., Fox, J. H., Wilczynski, W. & Rand, A. S. (1990) Sexual selection for sensory exploitation in the frog Physalaeumus pustulosus. Nature 343:343–66. [AJN]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sadalla, E. K., Kenrick, D. T. & Vershure, B. (1987) Dominance and heterosexual attraction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52:52–730. [arDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sandelowski, M. J. (1990) Failures of volition: Female agency and infertility in historical perspective. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 15:15–475. [BMB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sayers, J. (1982) Biological politics: Feminist and anti-feminist perspectives. Tavistock. [BMB]Google Scholar
Scarr, S. (1985) Constructing psychology: Making facts and fables for our times. American Psychologist 40:40–499. [BMB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaffer, L. S. (1983) Toward Pepitone's vision of a normative social psychology: What is a social norm? Journal of Mind & behavior 4:4–275. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Schneirla, T. C. (1959) An evolutionary and developmental theory of hiphasic processes underlying approach and withdrawal. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation 7:7–1. [DAD]Google Scholar
Schoen, R. (1984) Who marries whom? Age preferences in the 1970 U.S. marriage market. Revue, Informatique et Statistique dans les Sciences Humaines 20:20–203. [RS]Google Scholar
Schoen, R. & Thomas, B. (1989) Intergroup marriage in Hawaii, 1969–71 and 1979–81. Sociological Perspectives 32:32–365. [RS]Google Scholar
Schoen, R. & Wooldredge, J. (1989) Marriage choices in North Carolina and Virginia, 1969–71 and 1979–81. Journal of Marriage and the Family 51:51–465. [RS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schoen, R., Wooldredge, J. & Thomas, B. (1989) Ethnic and educational effects on marriage choice. Social Science Quarterly 70:70–617. [RS]Google Scholar
Sherman, P. W. (1988) The levels of analysis. Animal Behaviour 36:36–616. [CAM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shively, C. & Smith, D. G. (1985) Social status and reproductive success of male Macaca fascicularis. American Journal of Primatology 9:9–129. [GL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shykoff, J. A. (1991) Female behavioural ecologists respond to novel male traits. ISBE Newsletter 3:3–2. [AJN]Google Scholar
Simpson, J. A. & Gangestad, S. (1991) Individual differences in sociosexuality: Evidence for convergent and discriminant validity. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 60:60–870. [rDTK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sloman, S. & Sloman, L. (1988) Mate selection in the service of human evolution. Journal of Social and Biological Structures 11:11–457. [aDTK, DS, LM, SAS]Google Scholar
Sontag, S. (1979) The double standard of aging. In: Psychology of women, ed. Williams, J.. Academic Press. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Sorensen, T. I. A., Nielsen, G. G., Andersen, P. K. & Teasdale, T. W. (1988) Genetic and environmental influences on premature death in adult adoptees. New England Journal of Medicine 318:318–727. [JPR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spence, J. T., Deaux, K. & Helmreich, R. L. (1985) Sex roles in contemporary American society. In: Handbook of social psychology vol. II, 3rd ed., ed. Lindzey, G. & Aronson, E.. Random House. [RL]Google Scholar
Stanovich, K. E. (1991) Cognitive science meets beginning reading. Psychological Science 2:2–70. [DCF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stearns, S. C. (1976) Life history tactics: A review of the ideas. The Quarterly Review of Biology 51:51–3. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, B. R. & Smith, D. G. (1984) Sexual behavior and paternity in three captive groups of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatto). Animal behavior 32:32–23. [GL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stevens, G. & Schoen, R. (1988) Linguistic intermarriage in the U.S. Journal of Marriage and the Family 50:50–267. [RS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stoller, R. (1982) Transvestism in women. Archives of Sexual Behavior 11:11–99. [JMT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stone, C. P. (1943) Multiply, vary, let the strongest live and the weakest die - Charles Darwin. Psychological Bulletin 40:40–1. [DAD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stumpf, S. E. (1966) Socrates to Sartre: A history of philosophy. McGraw-Hill. [rDTK]Google Scholar
Surbey, M. (1987) Anorexia nervosa, amenorrhea, and adaptation. Ethology and Sociohiology 9 (The ethology of psychiatric populations) 47S676S. J. Feierman. [CBC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swedlund, A. C. & Armelagos, G. J. (1976) Demographic anthropology. Brown. [DB]Google Scholar
Symons, D. (1979) The evolution of human sexuality. Oxford University Press. [aDTK, TRA, PLvdB, RL, LN, JAS, DS, JMT, NWT]Google Scholar
Symons, D. (1980) Precis: The evolution of human sexuality. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3(2):171–214. [GJB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Symons, D. (1985) Darwinism and contemporary marriage. In: Contemporary marriage: Comparative perspectives on a changing institution, ed. Davis, K.. Sage. [DS, JMT]Google Scholar
Symons, D. (1987a) An evolutionary approach: Can Darwin's view of life shed light on human sexuality? In: Theories of human sexuality, ed. Geer, J. H. & O'Donohue, W. T.. Plenum Press. [DS]Google Scholar
Symons, D. (1987b) If we're all Darwinians, what's the fuss about? In: Sociobiology and psychology: Ideas, issues and applications, ed. Crawford, C., Smith, M., Krebs, D.. Erlbaum. [NWT]Google Scholar
Symons, D. (1989a) A critique of Darwinian anthropology. Ethology and Sociobiology 10:10–131. [rDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Symons, D. (1989b) The psychology of human mate preferences. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12:12–34. [aDTK, DS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Symons, D. & Ellis, B. (1989) Human male-female differences in sexual desire. In: Sociobiology of reproductive strategies, ed. Rasa, A., Vogel, C. & Voland, E.. Chapman Hall. [JMT, NWT]Google Scholar
Theissen, D. D. & Gregg, B. (1990) Human assortative mating and genetic equilibrium. Ethology and Sociobiology 1:1–111. [LM]Google Scholar
Thornhill, N. W. (1989) Characteristics of female desirability: Facultative standards of beauty. Behavioral 6- Brain Sciences 12:12–35. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Thornhill, R. & Thornhill, N. W. (1991) Coercive sexuality of men: Is there psychological adaptation to rape? In: Sexual coercion. A source book on its nature, causes and prevention, ed. Grauerholz, E. & Kosakwski, M. A.. D. C. Heath & Co. [NWT]Google Scholar
Thornhill, R. & Thornhill, N. W. (in press) The evolutionary psychology of men's coercive sexuality. Behavioral and Brain Sciences. [NWT]Google Scholar
Tinkle, D. W. (1969) The concept of reproductive effort and its relation to the evolution of life histories in lizards. American Naturalist 103:103–501. [aDTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Todd, J. T., Mark, L. S., Shaw, R. E. & Pittenger, J. B. (1980) The perception of human growth. Scientific American 242(2): 132–44. [TRA]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tolman, E. C. (1922) Can instincts be given up in psychology? Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 17:17–139. [DAD]Google Scholar
Tolman, E. C. (1932) Purposive behavior in animals and men. Century. [DAD]Google Scholar
Tooby, J. (1982) Pathogens, polymorphism, and the evolution of sex. Journal of Theoretical Biology 97:97–557. [DS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tooby, J. & Cosmides, L. (1990) On the universality of human nature and the uniqueness of the individual: The role of genetics and adaptation. Journal of Personality 58:58–1. [RL, NWT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Townsend, J. M. (1987) Sex differences in sexuality among medical students: Effects of increasing socioeconomic status. Archives of Sexual Behavior 16:16–427. [JMT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Townsend, J. M. (1989) Mate-selection criteria: A pilot study. Ethology and Sociobiology 10:10–241. [aDTK, JMT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Townsend, J. M. (n.d.) Sexuality and mate selection: Sex differences in ontogeny and criteria. Under review. [JMT]Google Scholar
Townsend, J. M. & Levy, G. D. (1990a) Effects of potential partners' physical attractiveness and socioeconomic status on sexuality and partner selection: Sex differences in reported preferences of university students. Archives of Sexual Behavior 19:19–149. [JMT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Townsend, J. M. & Levy, G. D. (1990b) Effects of potential partners' costume and physical attractiveness on sexuality and partner selection. Journal of Psychology 124:371–89. [JMT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1971) The evolution of reciprocal altruism. The Quarterly Review of Biology 46:46–35. [PB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1972) Parental investment and sexual selection. In: Sexual selection and the descent of man. ed. Campbell, B.. Aldine. [aDTK, JMT]Google Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1985) Social evolution. Benjamin/Cummings. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Tutin, C. E. G. (1979) Mating patterns and reproductive strategies in a community of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 6:6–39. [DB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
United Nations (1989) 1987 demography yearbook. United Nations. [aDTK]Google Scholar
U.S. Bureau of the Census (1981) Report of the U.S. Bureau of the Census. U. S. Government Printing Office. [DB]Google Scholar
Udry, J. R. (1981) Marital alternatives and marital disruption. Journal of Marriage and the Family 43:43–889. [JMT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uhlenburg, P. (1980) Death and the family. Journal of Family History (Fall):313–20. [GS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Tienderen, P. H. & van Noordwijk, A. J. (1988) Dispersal kinship and inbreeding in an island population of the Great Tit. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 1:117–37. [AJvN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Voland, E. (1990) Differential reproductive success within the Krummhorn population (Germany, 18th and 19th centuries). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 26:65–72. [LM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Voland, E. & Voland, R. (1989) Evolutionary biology and psychiatry: The case of anorexia nervosa. Ethology and Sociobiology 10:223–40. [CBC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walster, E., Walster, G. W. & Berscheid, E. (1978) Equity: Theory and research. Allyn & Bacon. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Warden, C. J. (1932) The evolution of human behavior. Macmillan. [DAD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wassar, S. K. & Barash, D. P. (1983) Reproductive suppression among female mammals: Implications for biomedicine and sexual selection theory. Quarterly Review of Biology 48:513–38. [CBC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weinrich, J. (1988) The periodic table model of the gender transpositions: Part II. Limerent and lusty sexual attractions and the nature of bisexuality. Journal of Sex Research 24:113–29. [JMT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Willerman, L. (1979) The psychology of individual and group differences. Freeman. [JAS]Google Scholar
Williams, G. C. (1966) Adaptation and natural selection: A critique of some current evolutionary thought. Princeton University Press. [CAM, JAS]Google Scholar
Williams, G. C. (1975) Sex and evolution. Princeton University Press. [aDTK]Google ScholarPubMed
Williams, G. C. (1985) A defense of reductionism in evolutionary biology. Oxford Surveys in Evolutionary Biology 2:1–27. [DS]Google Scholar
Wilson, R. S. (1983) The Louisville twin study: Developmental synchronies in behavior. Child Development 54:298–316. [JPR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Winegar, K. (1989) “Trophies” on a pedestal: Younger mate seen as symbol of real success. Arizona Republic September:Fl-2. [aDTK]Google Scholar
Yin, P. & Shine, M. (1985) Misinterpretations of increases in life expectancy in gerontology textbooks. The Gerontologist 25:78–82. [CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed