Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-t5tsf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T12:54:47.027Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Cultural and reproductive success in industrial societies: Testing the relationship at the proximate and ultimate levels

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

Daniel Pérusse
Daniel Pérusse
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, CanadaH3C 3J7 Electronic mail: perussed@ere.umontreal.ca
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In most social species, position in the male social hierarchy and reproductive success are positively correlated; in humans, however, this relationship is less clear, with studies of traditional societies yielding mixed results. In the most economically advanced human populations, the adaptiveness of status vanishes altogether; social status and fertility are uncorrelated. These findings have been interpreted to suggest that evolutionary principles may not be appropriate for the explanation of human behavior, especially in modern environments. The present study tests the adaptiveness of social status with actual mating and reproductive data in a representative sample of males from an industrial society. Reproductive success, even when assessed by a more reliable measure of actual male fertility than the one commonly used, fails to correlate with social status. In striking contrast, however, status is found to be highly correlated with potential fertility, as estimated from copulation frequency. Status thus accounts for as much as 62% of the variance in this proximate component of fitness. This pattern is remarkably similar to what is found in many traditional societies and would result in a substantial positive relationship between cultural and reproductive success in industrial populations were it not for the novel conditions imposed by contraception and monogamy. Various underlying mechanisms are suggested for these findings, illustrating the value of current behavioral and reproductive data in the study of adaptation. It is concluded that evolutionary explanations of human behavior remain entirely relevant in modern societies.

Keywords

achievement motivationadaptationculturedominanceevolutionfemale choicefertilityfitnessFrench-Canadiansreproductive successsexual behaviorsociobiologystatus seekingteaching biases
Type
Target article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 16 , Issue 2 , June 1993 , pp. 267 - 283
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1993

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alexander, R. D. (1988) Evolutionary approaches to human behavior: What does the future hold? In: Human reproductive behaviour: A Darwinian perspective, ed. Betzig, L., Mulder, M. Borgerhoff & Turke, P.. Cambridge University Press. [arDP, FLB]Google Scholar
Alexander, R. D. (1990) Epigenetic rules and Darwinian algorithms. Ethology and Sociobiology 11:241–301. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alexander, R. D., Hoogland, J. L., Howard, R. D., Noonan, K. M. & Sherman, P. W. (1979) Sexual dimorphisms and breeding systems in pinnipeds, ungulates, primates, and humans. In: Evolutionary biology and human social behavior: An anthropological perspective, ed. Chagnon, N. A. & Irons, W.. Duxbury Press. [aDP]Google Scholar
Anastasi, A. (1982) Psychological testing (5th ed.). Macmillan. [JAS]Google Scholar
Antonovsky, A. & Bernstein, J. (1977) Social class and infant mortality. Social Science and Medicine 11:453–70. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ayala, F. J. (1985) Reduction in biology: A recent challenge. In: Evolution at a crossroads: The new biology and the new philosophy of science, ed. Depew, D. J. & Weber, B. H.. Bradford Books/MIT Press. [LM]Google Scholar
Bailey, R. C. (1991) The behavioral ecology of Efe Pygmy men in the Ituri Forest, Zaire. Anthropological Papers, Museum of Anthropology, No. 86. University of Michigan Press. [LB]Google Scholar
Barbeau, R., Bilodeau, D. & Mercier, D. (1988) Comptes economiques du Québec. Bureau de la statistique du Québec. [aDP]Google Scholar
Barkow, J. H. (1977) Conformity to ethos and reproductive success in two Hausa communities: An empirical evaluation. Ethos 5:409–25. [WI]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barkow, J. H. (1978) Culture and sociobiology. American Anthropologist 80:5–20. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barkow, J. H. (1990) Beyond the DP/DSS controversy. Ethology and Sociobiology 11:341–51. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barkow, J. H. & Burley, N. (1980) Evolutionary biology, human fertility, and the demographic transition. Ethology and Sociobiology 1:163–80. [aDP, HK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barlow, G. W., Barrett, J. C. & Marshall, J. (1969) The risk of conception on different days of the menstrual cycle. Population Studies 23:455–61. [aDP]Google Scholar
Bellis, M. & Baker, R. (1990) Do females promote sperm competition? Data for humans. Animal Behavior 40:997–99. [LB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belsky, J., Steinberg, L. & Draper, P. (1991) Childhood experience, interpersonal development, and reproductive strategy: An evolutionary theory of socialization. Child Development 62:647–70. [EMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernstein, I. H. (1988) Applied multivariate analysis. Springer-Verlag. [rDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berscheid, E. (1985) Interpersonal attraction. In: Handbook of social psychology, vol. 2, ed. Lindzey, G. & Aronson, E.. Random House/Erlbaum. [aDP]Google Scholar
Betzig, L. L. (1986) Despotism and differential reproduction: A Darwinian view of history. Aldine. [aDP, LB, MDI]Google Scholar
Betzig, L. L. (1988a) Redistribution: Equity or exploitation? In: Human reproductive behaviour: A Darwinian perspective, ed. Betzig, L., Mulder, M. Borgerhoff & Turke, P.. Cambridge University Press. [aDP, LB]Google Scholar
Betzig, L. L. (1988b) Mating and parenting in Darwinian perspective. In: Human reproductive behaviour: A Darwinian perspective, ed. Betzig, L., Mulder, M. Borgerhoff & Turke, P.. Cambridge University Press. [aDP, LB, WI]Google Scholar
Betzig, L. L. (1989) Rethinking human ethology. Ethology and Sociobiology 10:315–24. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Betzig, L. L. (1992a) Sex, succession, and stratification in the first six civilizations. In: Socioeconomic inequality and social stratification, ed. Ellis, L.. Praeger. [LB]Google Scholar
Betzig, L. L. (1992b) Roman polygyny. In: Darwinian history, ed. L. Betzig. Special issue of Ethology and Sociobiology 13. [LB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Betzig, L. L. (1992c) Medieval monogamy. In: Darwinian approaches to the past, ed. Mithen, S. & Maschner, H.. Plenum. [LB]Google Scholar
Blake, J. (1972) Fertility control and the problem of volunteerism. Population Reprint 442, Berkeley Institute of International Population Studies, Berkeley, CA. [DW]Google Scholar
Blau, P. M. & Duncan, O. D. (1967) The American occupational structure. Wiley. [aDP]Google Scholar
Blishen, B. R., Carroll, W. K. & Moore, C. (1987) The 1981 socio-economic index for occupations. Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 24:465–88. [DW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bongaarts, J. & Potter, R. G. (1983) Fertility, biology and behavior: An analysis of the proximate determinants. Academic Press [aDP, DCS]Google Scholar
Boone, J. L. (1986) Parental investment and elite family structure in preindustrial states: A case study of late Medieval-early Modern Portuguese genealogies. American Anthropologist 88:859–78. [aDP, MDi]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boone, J. L. (1988) Parental investment, social subordination, and population processes among the 15th and 16th century Portuguese nobility. In: Human reproductive behaviour: A Darwinian perspective, ed. Betzig, L., Mulder, M. Borgerhoff & Turke, P.. Cambridge University Press. [aDP, MDi]Google Scholar
Borgerhoff, Mulder M. (1987) Cultural and reproductive success: Kipsigis evidence. American Anthropologist 89:617–34. [aDP, WI]Google Scholar
Borgerhoff, Mulder M. (1988) Reproductive success in three Kipsigis cohorts. In: Reproductive success: Studies of individual variation in contrasting breeding systems, ed. Clutton-Brock, T. H.. University of Chicago Press. [aDP, LB]Google Scholar
Borgerhoff, Mulder M. (1989) Polygyny and the extent of women's contributions to subsistence: A reply to White. American Anthropologist 91:178–80. [aDP]Google Scholar
Boyd, R. & Richerson, P. J. (1985) Culture and the evolutionary process. University of Chicago Press. [aDP, HCP, EAS]Google Scholar
Brändström, A. (1984) De Kärlekslösa mödrama: Spädbarnsdödligheten i Sverige under 1800-talet med särskild hänsyn till Nedertorneå. Acta Universitatis Umensis 62:1–271. [BSL]Google Scholar
Burian, R. M. (1985) On conceptual change in biology: The case of the gene. In: Evolution at a crossroads: The new biology and the new philosophy of science, ed. Depew, D. J. & Weber, B. H.. Bradford Books/MIT Press. [LM]Google Scholar
Burton, L. M. (1990) Teenage childbearing as an alternative life-course strategy in multi-generational black families. Human Nature 1:123–44. [HK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buss, D. M. (1987) Sex differences in human mate selection criteria: An evolutionary perspective. In: Sociobiology and psychology: Ideas, issues and applications, ed. Crawford, C., Smith, M. & Krehs, D.. Erlbaum. [arDP]Google Scholar
Buss, D. M. (1989) Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12:1–49. [aDP, EC, JAS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, K. L. & Wood, J. W. (1988) Fertility in traditional societies. In: Natural human fertility: Social and biological determinants, ed. Diggory, P., Potts, M. & Teper, S.. Macmillan. [BSL]Google Scholar
Cannadine, D. (1990) The decline and fall of the British aristocracy. Anchor Books. [LB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caro, T. M. & Borgerhoff, Mulder M. (1987) The problem of adaptation in the study of human behavior. Ethology and Sociobiology 8:61–72. [MBM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Centers, R. (1949) Marital selection and occupational strata. American Journal of Sociology 54:530–35. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chagnon, N. A. (1980) Kin selection theory, marriage and fitness among the Yanomamö Indians. In: Sociobiology: Beyond nature/nurture? ed. Barlow, G. W. & Silverberg, J.. Westview Press. [WI]Google Scholar
Chagnon, N. A. (1988) Life histories, blood revenge, and warfare in a tribal population. Science 239:985–92. [LB, WI]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chagnon, N. A., Flinn, M. V. & Melancon, T. F. (1979) Sex-ratio variation among the Yanomamö Indians. In: Evolutionary biology and human social behavior: An anthropological perspective, ed. Chagnon, N. A. & Irons, W.. Duxbury Press. [aDP, WI]Google Scholar
Chapais, B. & Pérusse, D. (1988) Anthropologie et sociobiologie: Les fondements d'une possible intégration. Anthropologies et Sociétés 12:175–91. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Child, I. L., Storm, T. & Veroff, J. (1958) Achievement themes in folk tales related to socialization practice. In: Motives in fantasy, action, and society, ed. Atkinson, J. W.. Van Nostrand. [aDP]Google Scholar
Clarke, A. L. & Low, B. S. (1992) Ecological correlates of dispersal in nineteenth century Sweden. Animal Behavior 44. [BSL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H., ed. (1988) Reproductive success: Studies of individual variation in contrasting breeding systems. University of Chicago Press. [arDP, LB]Google Scholar
Coale, A. J. & Watkins, S. C., eds. (1986) The decline of fertility in Europe. In: Princeton University Press. [MDi]Google Scholar
Cohen, J. & Cohen, P. (1983) Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences. Erlbaum. [JAS]Google Scholar
Cole, L. C. (1954) The population consequences of life history phenomena. Quarterly Review of Biology 29:103–37. [MDi]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coleman, R. & Rainwater, L. (1978) Social standing in America. In: Basic Books. [aDP]Google Scholar
Collins, L. M., Graham, J. W., Hansen, W. B. & Johnson, C. A. (1985) Agreement between retrospective accounts of substance use and earlier reported substance use. Applied Psychological Measurement 9:301–9. [UM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cosmides, L. & Tooby, J. (1987) From evolution to behavior: Evolutionary psychology as the missing link? In: The latest on the best: Essays on evolution and optimality, ed. Dupré, J.. MIT Press. [aDP]Google Scholar
Cramer, B. G. (1987) Objective and subjective aspects of parent-infant relations: An attempt at correlation between infant studies and clinical work. In: Handbook of infant development (2nd ed.), ed. Osofsky, J. D.. Wiley. [aDP]Google Scholar
Crawford, C. (1991) The proper null hypothesis: Ancestral and current environments do not differ with respect to any adaptation. Paper presented at the 3rd annual meeting of the Human Behavior and Evolution Society, Hamilton, Ontario. [aDP]Google Scholar
Crockett, H. J. Jr., (1962) The achievement motive and differential occupational mobility in the United States. American Sociological Review 27:191–204.32. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cronk, L. (1991) Wealth, status, and reproductive success among the Mukogodo of Kenya. American Anthropologist 93:345–60. [LB, WI]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crook, J. H. & Crook, S. J. (1988) Tibetan polyandry: Problems of adaptation and fitness. In: Human reproductive behaviour: A Darwinian perspective, ed. Betzig, L., Mulder, M. Borgerhoff & Turke, P.. Cambridge University Press. [aDP]Google Scholar
Crowne, D. P. & Marlowe, D. (1960) A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology. Journal of Consulting Psychology 24:349–54. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daly, M. & Wilson, M. (1983) Sex, evolution and behavior (2nd ed.). Willard Grant Press. [aDP, MDi]Google Scholar
Daniel, H. J., O'Brien, K. F., Cabe, R. B. & Quinter, V. E. (1985) Values in mate selection: A 1984 campus survey. College Student Journal 19:44–50 [aDP]Google Scholar
Davis, J. A. & Smith, T. (1991) General social surveys, 1972–1991: Cumulative codebook. In: National Opinion Research Center, Chicago, IL. [NDG]Google Scholar
Dawkins, R. (1981) The extended phenotype. Oxford University Press. [rDP]Google Scholar
Dawkins, R. (1986) Wealth, polygyny, and reproductive success. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 9:190–91. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawkins, R. (1989) The selfish gene (new ed.). Oxford University Press. [arDP]Google Scholar
DelVecchio Good, M. -J., Fair, G. M. & Good, B. J. (1980) Social status and fertility: A study of a town and three villages in Northwestern Iran. Population Studies 34:311–19. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dewsbury, D. A. (1982) Dominance rank, copulatory behavior, and differential reproduction. Quarterly Review of Biology 57:135–59. [arDP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickemann, M. (1979a) Female infanticide, reproductive strategies, and social stratification: A preliminary model. In: Evolutionary biology and human social behavior: An anthropological perspective, ed. Chagnon, N. A. & Irons, W.. Duxbury Press. [MDi]Google Scholar
Dickemann, M. (1979b) The ecology of mating systems in hypergynous dowry societies. Social Science Information 18:163–95. [MDi]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dickemann, M. (1981) Paternal confidence and dowry competition: A biocultural analysis of Purdah. In: Natural selection and social behavior, ed. Alexander, R. D. & Tinkle, D. W.. Chiron Press. [rDP, MDi]Google Scholar
Dickemann, M. (1986) Multiple genders and reproductive strategies in humans: Steps toward a radical Sociobiology. Paper presented at the Anthropology Colloquium series, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, October. [EMH]Google Scholar
Dickemann, M. (1991) Women, class and dowry. American Anthropologist 93(4):944–46. [JS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dillman, D. A. (1978) Mail and telephone surveys: The total design method. Wiley. [aDP]Google Scholar
Dinkel, R. & Milenovic, I. (1992) Die Kohortenfertilität von Männern und Frauen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Eine Mesung mit Daten der empirischen Sozialforschung. Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie 44:55–75. [UM]Google Scholar
Draper, P. & Belsky, J. (1990) The relevance of evolutionary thinking for issues in personality development. Journal of Personality 58:141–62. [EMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duchesne, L. (1989) La situation démographique au Québec. Les Publications du Québec. [aDP]Google Scholar
Dunbar, R. I. M. (1987) Darwinising man: A commentary. In: Human reproductive behaviour, ed. Betzig, L., Mulder, M. Borgerhoff & Turke, P.. Cambridge University Press. [RIMD]Google Scholar
Dunbar, R. I. M. (1988) The evolutionary implications of social behaviour. In: The role of behaviour in evolution, ed. Plotkin, H. C.. MIT Press. [RIMD]Google Scholar
Duncan, O. D., Featherman, D. L. & Duncan, B. (1972) Socioeconomic background and achievement. Seminar Press. [aDP]Google Scholar
Dupré, J. (1993) The disorder of things: Metaphysical foundations of the disunity of science. Harvard University Press. [JD]Google Scholar
Durham, W. H. (1979) Toward a coevolutionary theory of human biology and culture. In: Evolutionary biology and human social behavior: An anthropological perspective, ed. Chagnon, N. A. & Irons, W.. Duxbury Press. [aDP]Google Scholar
Easterlin, R. A. (1980) Birth and fortune. Basic Books. [EMH]Google Scholar
Easterlin, R., Alter, G. & Condran, G. A. (1978) Farms and farm families in old and new areas: The northern states in 1860. In: Family and population in nineteenth century America, ed. Hareven, T. & Vinovskis, M.. Princeton University Press. [BSL]Google Scholar
Edgington, E. S. (1972a) An additive method for combining probability values from independent experiments. Journal of Psychology 80:85–89. [WI]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edgington, E. S. (1972b) A normal curve method for combining probability value from independent experiments. Journal of Psychology 82:85–89. [WI]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elder, G. H. (1969) Appearance and education in marriage mobility. American Sociological Review 35:519–33. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ember, C. R. (1991) Comment on Manson J. H. & Wranglan R. W. Intergroup aggression in chimpanzees and humans. Current Anthropology 32(4):369–90. [JS]Google Scholar
Emlen, S. T. & Oring, L. W. (1977) Ecology, sexual selection, and evolution of mating systems. Science 197:215–23. [rDP, EMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Essock-Vitale, S. M. (1984) The reproductive success of wealthy Americans. Ethology and Sociobiology 5:45–49. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Essock-Vitale, S. M. & McGuire, M. T. (1988) What 70 million years hath wrought: Sexual histories and reproductive success of a random sample of American women. In: Human reproductive behaviour: A Darwinian perspective, ed. Betzig, L., Mulder, M. Borgerhoff & Turke, P.. Cambridge University Press. [rDP]Google Scholar
Featherman, D. L. (1979) Subjective images of socioeconomic strata in America. Contemporary Psychology 24:1004–5. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fedigan, L. M. (1983) Dominance and reproductive success in primates. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 26:91–129. [arDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feingold, A. (1992) Gender differences in mate selection preferences: A test of the parental investment model. Psychological Bulletin 112:125–39. [GC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flinn, M. V. (1986) Correlates of reproductive success in a Caribbean village. Human Ecology 14:225–43. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flinn, M. V. (1987) Resources, reproduction, and mate competition in human populations. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 10:305–7. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flinn, M. V. & Alexander, R. D. (1982) Culture theory: The developing synthesis from biology. Human Ecology 10:383–400. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fodor, J. A. (1983) The modularity of mind. MIT Press. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freedman, D. (1987) As others see us: A case study in path analysis. Journal of Educational Statistics 12:101–28. [FLB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freedman, D. & Thornton, A. (1982) Income and fertility: The elusive relationship. Demography 19:65–79. [EMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galtung, J. (1967) Theory and methods of social research. Columbia University Press. [FLB]Google Scholar
Gangestad, S. W. & Simpson, J. A. (1990) Toward an evolutionary history of female sociosexual variation. Journal of personality 58(1):69–96. [LM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gaulin, S. J. C. & Boster, J. S. (1990) Dowry as female competition. American Anthropologist 92(4):994–1005. [JS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gersted, K., Moore, P., Folsom, R. E. & King, D. A. (1970) Mechlenburg County drinking attitude survey. Report prepared for U.S. Department of Transportation. Research Triangle Press. [DW]Google Scholar
Glenn, N. D. & Taylor, P. A. (1984) Education and family income: A comparison of white married men and women in the U.S. Social Forces 63:169–83. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goubert, P. (1968) Legitimate fecundity and infant mortality in France during the eighteenth century: A comparison. Daedalus 97:593–603. [HK]Google ScholarPubMed
Grafen, A. (1988) On the uses of data on lifetime reproductive success. In: Reproductive success: Studies of individual variation in contrasting breeding systems, ed. Clutton-Brock, T. H.. University of Chicago Press. [aDP]Google Scholar
Greenberg, B., Abernathy, J. & Horowitz, D. (1970) A new survey technique and its application in the field of public health. Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 48:39–55. [DW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Groulx, L. -A. (1960) Histoire du Canada français depuis la découoerte. Fides. [aDP]Google Scholar
Halliday, T. R. (1983) The study of mate choice. In: Mate choice, ed. Bateson, P.. Cambridge University Press. [rDP]Google Scholar
Hamilton, W. D. (1964) The genetical evolution of social behavior. Journal of Theoretical Biology 7:1–52. [arDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Handwerker, W. P. (1986a) The modern demographic transition: An analysis of subsistence choices and reproductive consequences. American Anthropologist 88:400–417. [MDi]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Handwerker, W. P. (1986b) Culture and reproduction: An anthropological critique of demographic transition theory. Westview Press. [MDi]Google Scholar
Harris, W. V. (1980) Towards a study of the Roman slave trade. Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 36:117–40. [LB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartung, J. (1986) Proximate mechanisms and distal objectives. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 9:196. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hauser, R. M. (1972) Disaggregating a social-psychological model of educational attainment. Social Science Research 1:159–88. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hauser, R. M. & Featherman, D. L. (1977) The process of stratification: Trends and analyses. Academic Press. [aDP]Google Scholar
Hawkes, K. (1990) Why do men hunt? Benefits for some risky choices. In: Risk and uncertainty in tribal and peasant economies, ed. Cashdan, E.. Westview Press. [rDP]Google Scholar
Hawkes, K. (1991) Showing off: Tests of an hypotheses about men's foraging goals. Ethology and Sociobiology 12:29–54. [rDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawkes, K., O'Connell, J. F. & Blurton Jones, N. G. (1991) Hunting income patterns among the Hadza: Big game, common goods, foraging goals and the evolution of the human diet. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society London B 334:243–51. [rDP]Google ScholarPubMed
Hawley, A. H. (1955) Rural fertility in central Luzon. American Sociological Review 20:21–27. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hewlett, B. S. (1988) Sexual selection and paternal investment among Aka pygmies. In: Human reproductive behaviour, ed. Betzig, L., Mulder, M. Borgerhoff & Turke, P.. Cambridge University Press. [LB, RIMD]Google Scholar
Hiday, V. A. (1978) Agricultural organization and fertility: A comparison of two Philippine frontier communities. Social biology 25:69–79. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, E. M. & Low, B. S. (1992) Contemporary abortion patterns: A life history approach. Ethology and Sociobiology 13:35–48. [EMH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, J. (1984) Prestige and reproductive success in man. Ethology and Sociobiology 5:77–95. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, K. & Hurtado, A. M. (1992) Life history and demography of Ache foragers. Aldine. [LB]Google Scholar
Hill, K. & Kaplan, H. (1988) Tradeoffs in male and female reproductive strategies among the Ache. In: Human reproductive behaviour: A Darwinian perspective, ed. Betzig, L., Mulder, M. Borgerhoff & Turke, P.. Cambridge University Press. [rDP, LB]Google Scholar
Hippler, H. J., Schwarz, N. & Sudman, S., eds. (1987) Social information processing and survey methodology. Springer. [UM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hochstim, J. R. (1967) A critical comparison of three strategies of collecting data from households. Journal of American Statistical Association 62:967–89. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodson, R. (1985) Some considerations concerning the functional form of earnings. Social Science Research 14:374–94. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hollingshead, A. B. (1950) Cultural factors in the selection of marriage mates. American Sociological Review 15:619–27. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoyt, L. L. & Hudson, J. W. (1981) Personal characteristics important in mate preference among college students. Social Behavior and Personality 9:93–96. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hsu, F., Anantharaman, T., Campbell, M. & Nowatzyk, A. (1990) A grandmaster chess machine. Scientific American 263:44–50. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hudson, J. W. & Henze, L. F. (1966) Campus values in mate selection: A replication. Journal of Marriage and the Family 31:772–75. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, A. L. (1986) Reproductive success and occupational class in eighteenth-century Lancashire, England. Social Biology 33:109–15. [aDP, WI]Google ScholarPubMed
Hull, T. H. & Hull, V. J. (1977) The relation of economic class and fertility: An analysis of some Indonesian data. Population Studies 31:43–57. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hunt, T. C. (1940) Occupational status and marriage selection. American Sociological Review 5:495–504. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hurtado, M., Hill, K., Kaplan, H. & Hurtado, I. (1992) Tradeoffs between food acquisition and child care among Hiwi and Ache women. Human Nature 3(3):185–216. [BSL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hutchinson, G. E. (1978) An introduction to population ecology, Yale University Press. [MDi]Google Scholar
Irons, W. (1976) Emic and reproductive success. Paper read at the 75th annual meeting of the American Anthropological Association, Washington, DC, November. (See also Abstracts of the 75th Annual Meeting. 132. American Anthropological Association.) [WI]Google Scholar
Irons, W. (1979) Cultural and biological success. In: Evolutionary biology and human social behavior: An anthropological perspective, ed. Chagnon, N. A. & Irons, W.. Duxbury Press. [aDP, LM, WI]Google Scholar
Irons, W. (1980) Is Yomut social behavior adaptive? In: Sociobiology: Beyond nature/nurture? ed. Barlow, G. W. & Silverberg, J.. Westview Press. [aDP, WI] (1990)Google Scholar
Irons, W. (1990) Let's make our perspective broader rather than narrower. Ethology and Sociobiology 11:361–74. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Irons, W. (1992) Niche homogeneity and reproductive competition. Presented at the 4th annual meeting of the Human Behavior and Evolution Society, Albuquerque, NM. [LM]Google Scholar
James, W. H. (1974) Marital coital rates, spouses' ages, family size and social class. Journal of Sex Research 10:205–18. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, N. E. & Lean, S. (1985) Relative income, race, and fertility. Population Studies 39:99–112. [EMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaplan, H. & Hill, K. (1985) Hunting ability and reproductive success among male Ache foragers. Current Anthropology 25:131–33. [LB, WI]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaplan, H. & Hill, K. (1986) Sexual strategies and social-class differences in fitness in modern industrial societies. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 9:198–201. [aDP, HK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaplan, H. & Lancaster, J. (1991) The Albuquerque men's study. Plenary talk at meetings of the Human Behavior and Evolution Society, McMaster University, Ontario, Canada. [LB]Google Scholar
Kemper, T. D. (1990) Social structure and testosterone: Explorations of the socio-bio-social chain. Rutgers University Press, [TDK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kenrick, D. T. (in press) Evolutionary social psychology: From sexual selection to social cognition. In: Advances in experimental social psychology, ed. M. P. Zanna. Academic Press. [JAS]Google Scholar
Kenrick, D. T. & Keefe, R. C. (1992) Age preferences in mates reflect sex differences in human reproductive strategies. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15:75–133. [aDP, JD, TDK, JAS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kenrick, D. T., Sadalla, E. K., Groth, G. & Trost, M. R. (1990) Mate choice and relationship level: Qualifying the parental investment model. Journal of Personality 58:50–85. [DTK]Google ScholarPubMed
Kenrick, D. T. & Trost, M. R. (1987) A biosocial theory of heterosexual relationships. In: Theories of human sexuality, ed. Kelley, K. & Byrne, D.. SUNY Press. [DTK]Google Scholar
Khalifa, A. M. (1973) A proposed explanation of the fertility gap differentials by socio-economic status and modernity: The case of Egypt. Population Studies 27:431–42. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B. & Martin, C. E. (1948) Sexual behavior in the human male. Saunders, [aDP, DTK, TDK]Google Scholar
Kitagawa, E. M. & Hauser, P. M. (1973) Differential mortality in the United States: A study in socioeconomic epidemiology. Harvard University Press, [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kitcher, P. (1985) Vaulting ambition: Sociobiology and the quest for human nature. MIT Press, [DW]Google Scholar
Kitcher, P. (1987) Précis of Vaulting ambition: Sociobiology and the quest for human nature. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 10:61–99. [HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knauft, B. M. (1991) Violence and sexuality in human evolution. Current Anthropology 32(4):391–428. [JS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krebs, J. R. & Davies, N. B., eds. (1984) Behavioural ecology: An evolutionary approach (2nd ed.). Blackwell. [MDi]Google Scholar
Lack, D. (1968) Ecological adaptations for breeding in birds. Methuen, [HK]Google Scholar
Lancaster, J. B. (1989) Evolutionary and cross-cultural perspectives on single parenthood. In: Interfaces in psychology: Sociobiology and the social sciences, ed. Bell, R. & Bell, N.. Texas Tech University Press. [HK]Google Scholar
Lancaster, J. B. & Kaplan, H. (1991) Male fertility and parenting: Tests of models with a sample of Albuquerque men. Paper presented at the 3rd annual meeting of the Human Behavior and Evolution Society, Hamilton, Ontario. [HK]Google Scholar
Larson, R. F. & Leslie, G. R. (1968) Prestige influences in serious dating relationships of university students. Social Forces 47:195–202. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laslett, P. (1984) The world we have lost (3rd ed.). Scribner's. [LB]Google Scholar
Leavitt, G. C. (1990) Sociobiological explorations of incest avoidance. A critical review of evidential claims. American Anthropologist 92(4):971–93. [JS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leavitt, G. C. (1992) Inbreeding fitness: A reply to Uhlmann. American Anthropologist 94(2):448–50. [JS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, R. B. (1979) The !Kung San. Cambridge University Press, [GJB]Google Scholar
Leridon, H. (1977) Human fertility. University of Chicago Press, [aDP]Google Scholar
Levine, R. A. & Serimshaw, S. C. M. (1983) Effects of culture on fertility: Anthropological contributions. In: Determinants of fertility in developing countries, ed. Bullato, R. A. & Lee, R. D.. National Academy. [HK]Google Scholar
Lindert, P. H. (1979) Fertility and scarcity in America. Princeton University Press, [EMH]Google Scholar
Lipton, P. & Thompson, N. S. (1988) Comparative psychology and the recursive structure of filter explanations. International Journal of Comparative Psychology 1:215–44. [NST]Google Scholar
Low, B. S. (1989) Occupational status and reproductive behavior in nineteenth-century Sweden: Locknevi Parish. Social Biology 36:82–101. [MDi, BSL]Google ScholarPubMed
Low, B. S. (1990) Occupational status, landownership, and reproductive behavior in nineteenth-century Sweden: Tuna Parish. American Anthropologist 92:457–68. [MDi, BSL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Low, B. S. (1991) Reproductive life in nineteenth-century Sweden: An evolutionary perspective on demographic phenomena. Ethology and Sociobiology 12:411–48. [BSL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Low, B. S. & Clarke, A. L. (1991) Family patterns in 19th-century Sweden: Impact of occupational status and land ownership, Journal of Family History 16(2):117–38. [aDP, BSL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Low, B. S. & Clarke, A. L. (1992) Resources and the life course: Patterns through the demographic transition. Ethology and Sociobiology 13(4–5). [BSL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Low, B. S., Clarke, A. L. & Lockridge, K. (1991) Family patterns in nineteenth-century Sweden: Variation in time and space. Demographic Database Monograph #6. Umea, Sweden. [BSL]Google Scholar
Low, B. S. & Clarke, A. L. (1992) Toward an ecological demography. Population and Development Review 18(1):1–31. [BSL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lowrie, S. H. (1961) Early and late dating: Some conditions associated with them. Marriage and Family Living 23:284–90. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lumsden, C. J. & Wilson, E. O. (1981) Genes, mind and culture: The coevolutionary process. Harvard University Press, [aDP, HCP]Google Scholar
MacArthur, R. (1962) Some generalized theorems of natural selection. Proceedings, National Academy of Sciences (USA) 48:1893–97. [MDi]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacArthur, R. H. & Wilson, E. O. (1967) The theory of island biogcography. Princeton University Press, [BSL]Google Scholar
Mathews, G. (1984) Le choc démographique. Boŕeal Express, [aDP]Google Scholar
McClelland, D. C. (1985) Human motivation. Scott, Foresman, [NST]Google Scholar
McClelland, D. C. & Pilon, D. A. (1983) Sources of adult motives in patterns of parent behavior in early childhood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 44:564–74. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mealey, L. (1985) The relationship between social and biological success: A case study of the Mormon religious hierarchy. Ethology and Sociobiology 6:249–57. [aDP, LM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mealey, L. & Segal, N. L. (in press) Heritable and environmental variables affect reproduction-related behaviors, but not ultimate reproductive success. Personality and Individual Differences. [LM]Google Scholar
Menken, J. L. (1985) Age and fertility: How late can you wait? Population Association of America presidential address. Demography 22:469–83. [DW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mock, D. W. & Fujioka, M. (1990) Monogamy and long-term pair bonding in vertebrates. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 5:39–43. [LB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Møller, A. P. (1987) Extent and duration of mate guarding in swallow Hirundo rustica. Ornis Scandinacica 18:95–100. [LB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Møller, A. P. (1988) Female choice selects for male sexual tail ornaments in the monogamous swallow. Nature 332:640–42. [LB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moss, H. & Kagan, J. (1961) Stability of achievement and recognition-seeking behaviors from early childhood through adulthood. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 62:504–13. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mueller, E. & Short, K. (1983) Effects of income and wealth on the demand for children. In: Determinants of fertility in developing countries, ed. Bulatao, R. & Lee, R.. Academic Press. [LB]Google Scholar
Mueller, U. (1991) Social and reproductive success: Theoretical considerations and a case study of the West Point Class of 1950. Zentrum für Umfragen, Methoden und Analysen, [rDP, EMH, HK, BSL]Google Scholar
Murdock, G. P. & White, D. (1969) Standard cross-cultural sample. Ethnology 8:329–60. [LB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neale, M. C., Walters, E., Heath, A. C., Kessler, R. C., Pérusse, D., Eaves, L. J. & Kendler, K. S. (in press) Depression and parental bonding: Cause, consequence, or genetic covariance? Genetic Epidemiology. [rDP]Google Scholar
Noe, R. & Sluijter, A. A. (1990) Reproductive tacties of male savanna baboons. Behaviour 113:117–70. [RIMD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Papousek, H. & Papousek, M. (1987) Intuitive parenting: A dialectic counterpart to the infant's integrative competence. In: Handbook of infant development (2nd ed.), ed. Osofsky, J. D.. Wiley. [aDP]Google Scholar
Pedhazur, E. J. (1982) Multiple regression in behavioral research. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, [rDP]Google Scholar
Perrins, C. M. (1965) Population fluctuation and clutch-size in the great tit (Parus major L.) Journal of Animal Ecology 34:601–47. [HK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pérusse, D. (1985) Dénatalité et poursuite de succès extra-reproductif: Un défi à la sociobiologie humaine. Paper presented at the Human Sociobiology Discussion Group. Université de Montréal, Canada. [aDP]Google Scholar
Pérusse, D. (1988) Succès social et succès reproductif dans les sociétés modernes: Une analyse sociobiologique. Anthropologies et Sociétés 12:151–74. [arDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pérusse, D. (1992) Specific versus general adaptations: Another unnecessary dichotomy? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15:399–400. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pérusse, D. (in preparation) Genetic adaptations: The evolutionary significance of heritability, sex limitation and age at onset of gene expression. [rDP]Google Scholar
Pérusse, D. (submitted) Mate choice in modern societies: Testing evolutionary hypotheses with behavioral data. [aDP]Google Scholar
Pérusse, D., Neale, M. C., Heath, A. C. & Eaves, L. J. (in press) Human parental behavior: Evidence for genetic influence and potential implication for gene-culture transmission. Behavior Genetics. [aDP]Google Scholar
Pianka, E. R. (1974) Evolutionary ecology. Harper & Row, [MDi]Google Scholar
Pineo, P. C. & Porter, J. (1967) Occupational prestige in Canada. Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 4:24–40. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plomin, R. (1981) Ethological behavioral genetics and development. In: Behavioral development, ed. Immelmann, K., Barlow, G. W., Petrinovich, L. & Main, M.. Cambridge University Press. [LM]Google Scholar
Plotkin, H. C. & Odling-Smee, F. J. (1981) A multiple level model of evolution and its implications for sociobiology. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 4:225–68. [LM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Polgar, S. & Marshall, J. M. (1976) The search for culturally acceptable fertility regulation methods. In: Culture, natality and family planning, ed. Marshall, J. F. & Polgar, S.. University of North Carolina Press. [HK]Google Scholar
Reiss, I. L. (1965) Social class and campus dating. Social Problems 13:193–205. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, A. R. (1988) Does biology constrain culture? American Anthropologist 90:819–31. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, A. R. (1990) The evolutionary economics of human reproduction. Ethology and Sociobiology 11:479–95. [HK, BSL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, A. R. (1991a) Conserving resources for children. Human Nature 2(1):73–82. [BSL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rogers, A. R. (1991b) Evolutionary economics of human reproduction. Ethology and Sociobiology 11:479–95. [EMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, E. M. & Havens, A. E. (1960) Prestige rating and mate selection on a college campus. Marriage and Family Living 22:55–59. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosen, B. C. & D'Andrade, R. (1959) The psychological origins of achievement motivation. Sociometry 22:185–218. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenblatt, P. C. & Hillabrant, W. J. (1972) Divorce for childlessness and the regulation of adultery. Journal of Sex Research 8:117–27. [HK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Røskaft, E., Wara, A. & Viken, Å. (1992) Reproductive success in relation to resource access and parental age in a small Norwegian farming parish during the period 1700–1900. In: Darwinian history, ed. Betzig, L.. Special issue of Ethology and Sociobiology 13. [LB]Google Scholar
Rubenstein, D. E. (1982) Risk, uncertainty and evolutionary strategies. In: Current problems in sociobiology, ed. King's College Sociobiology Group. Cambridge University Press. [EMU]Google Scholar
Rubin, Z. (1968) Do American women marry up? American Sociological Review 33:750–60. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rushton, J. P. (1988) Race differences in behavior: A review and evolutionary analysis. Personality and Individual Differences 9:1009–24. [JH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sadalla, E. K., Kenrick, D. T. & Vershure, B. (1987) Dominance and heterosexual attraction. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 52:730–38. [DTK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sahlins, M. D. (1968) Tribesmen. Prentice-Hall, [WI]Google Scholar
Schlegel, A. (1991) Status, property and the value of virginity. American Ethnologist 18(4):719–34. [JS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwarz, N. (1990) Assessing frequency reports of mundane behaviors. In: Review of personality and social psychology, ed. Hendrick, C. & Clark, M. S.. Sage. [UM]Google Scholar
Sewell, W. H. & Hauser, R. M. (1975) Education, occupation and earnings: Achievement in the early career. Academic Press, [aDP]Google Scholar
Shaikh, K. & Becker, S. (1985) Socioeconomic status and fertility in rural Bangladesh. Journal of Biosocial Science 17:81–89. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shostak, M. (1981) Nisa: The life and words of a !Kung woman. Harvard University Press, [GJB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silverberg, J. (1980) Sociobiology, the new synthesis? An anthropologist's perspective. In: Sociobiology: Beyond naturel nurture? Reports, definitions and debate, AAAS Selected Symposium Series #35, ed. Barlow, G. W. & Silverberg, J.. Westview Press. [JS]Google Scholar
Silverberg, J. & Gray, J. P. (1992) Aggression and peacefulness in humans and other primates. Oxford University Press, [JS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simpson, J. A. & Gangestad, S. W. (1991) Individual differences in sociosexuality: Evidence for convergent and discriminant validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60:870–83. [JAS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Small, M. F. (1989) Female choice in nonhuman primates. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 32:103–27. [rDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, C. C. & Fretwell, S. D. (1974) The optimal balance between size and number of offspring. American Naturalist 108:499–506. [HK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, R. L. (1984) Human sperm competition. In: Sperm competition and the evolution of animal mating systems, ed. Smith, R.. Academic Press. [LB]Google Scholar
Smith, W. M. Jr. (1952) Rating and dating: A re-study. Marriage and Family Living 14:312–17. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Statistics Canada (1987a) Population and dwelling counts: Provinces and territories. In: Québec. Catalogue 92–113. Minister of Supply and Services Canada, [aDP]Google Scholar
Statistics Canada (1987b) The nation. Families-Part 1. In: Catalogue 93–106. Minister of Supply and Services Canada, [aDP]Google Scholar
Statistics Canada (1989a) The labour force, 1989. In: Catalogue 71–001. Minister of Supply and Services Canada, [aDP]Google Scholar
Statistics Canada (1989b) The nation. Employment income by occupation. In:Catalogue 93–116. Minister of Supply and Services Canada, [aDP]Google Scholar
Statistics Canada (1989c) The nation. Employment income: Individuals. In: Catalogue 93–115. Minister of Supply and Services Canada, [aDP]Google Scholar
Stearns, S. C. (1982) Components of fitness. Science 218:463–64. [LM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stevens, G. & Hoisington, E. (1987) Occupational prestige and the 1980 U.S. labor force. Social Science Research 16:74–105. [arDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stys, W. (1957) The influence of economic conditions on the fertility of peasant women. Population Studies 11:136–48. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sudman, S. & Schwarz, N. (1987) Contributions of cognitive psychology to data collection in marketing research. ZUMA: Zentrum Für Umfragen, Methoden und Analysen. Working paper 87/09, [UM]Google Scholar
Suetonius, (1982) The twelve Caesars. In: Translated by Graves, R. & Grant, M.. Penguin, [LB]Google Scholar
Symons, D. (1979) The evolution of human sexuality. Oxford University Press, [arDP, JAS]Google Scholar
Symons, D. (1987) If we're all Darwinians, what's the fuss about? In: Sociobiology and psychology: Ideas, issues, and applications, ed. Crawford, C. B., Smith, M. F. & Krebs, D. L.. Erlbaum. [aDP, MDa]Google Scholar
Symons, D. (1989) A critique of Darwinian anthropology. Ethology and Sociobiology 10:131–44. [arDP, MDa]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Symons, D. (1990) Adaptiveness and adaptation. Ethology and Sociobiology 11:427–44. [aDP, MDa]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tanner, N. M. (1981) On becoming human. Cambridge University Press, [GJB]Google Scholar
Taylor, P. A. & Glenn, N. D. (1976) The utility of education and attractiveness for females' status attainment through marriage. American Sociological Review 41:484–98. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thiessen, D. D. (1972) A move towards species-specific analyses in behavioral genetics. Behavior Genetics 2(2/3): 115–26. [LM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, N. S. (1981) Toward a falsifiable theory of evolution. In: Perspectives in ethology, 4, ed. Bateson, P. P. G. & Klopfer, P. H.. Plenum Press. [NST]Google Scholar
Thornhill, R. (1990) The study of adaptation. In: Interpretation and explanation in the study of behavior, vol. 2, ed. Bekoff, M. & Jamieson, D.. Westview Press. [aDP]Google Scholar
Thornhill, R. & Thornhill, N. W. (1992) The evolutionary psychology of men's coercive sexuality. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15:363–421. [aDP, JD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tinbergen, N. (1963) On the aims and methods of ethology. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 20:419–33. [RIMD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tooby, J. & Cosmides, L. (1989) Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture. Part I: Theoretical considerations. Ethology and Sociobiology 10:29–49. [aDP, HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tooby, J. & Cosmides, L. (1990) The past explains the present. Ethology and Sociobiology 11:375–424. [arDP, MDa, LM, EAS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treiman, D. J. (1977) Occupational prestige in comparative perspective. Academic Press, [aDP]Google Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1972) Parental investment and sexual selection. In: Sexual selection and the descent of man, ed. Campbell, B. G.. Aldine. [arDP, JAS]Google Scholar
Turke, P. W. (1988) Helpers at the nest: Childcare networks in Ifaluk. In: Human reproductive behaviour: A Darwinian perspective, ed. Betzig, L., Mulder, M. Borgerhoff & Turke, P.. Cambridge University Press. [BSL]Google Scholar
Turke, P. W. (1989) Evolution and the demand for children. Population & Development Review 15:61–90. [EMH, WI, BSL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turke, P. W. (1990a) Which humans behave adaptively, and why does it matter? Ethology and Sociobiology 11:305–39. [aDP, LB, WI]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turke, P. W. (1990b) Just do it. Ethology and Sociobiology 11:445–63. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turke, P. W. & Betzig, L. L. (1985) Those who can do: Wealth, status, and reproductive success on Ifaluk. Ethology and Sociobiology 6:79–87. [aDP, WI]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
United Nations (1976) Fertility and planning in Europe around 1970. Population Series, no. 58 [aDP]Google Scholar
van de Kaa, D. J. (1987) Europe's second demographic transition. Population Bulletin 42(1). [MDi]Google ScholarPubMed
Vanden Driesen, I. H. (1972) Some observations on the family unit, religion, and the practice of polygyny in the Ife division of Western Nigeria. Africa 47:44–56. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van de Walle, E. & Knodel, J. (1980) Europe's fertility transition: New evidence and lessons for today's developing world. Population Bulletin 34(6). [MDi]Google ScholarPubMed
Veevers, J. E. (1979) Voluntary childlessness: A review of issues and evidence. Marriage and Family Review 2:3–26. [DW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vega, G. de la (1961) Royal commentaries on the Incas. Orians Press, [LB]Google Scholar
Vining, D. R. (1986) Social versus reproductive success: The central theoretical problem of human sociobiology. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 9:167–87. [aDP, FLB, MDa, JH, HOP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Voland, E. (1990) Differential reproductive success within the Krummhorn population (Germany, 18th & 19th centuries). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 26:65–72. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wakil, S. P. (1973) Campus dating: An exploratory study of cross-national relevance. Journal of Comparative Family Studies 4:286–94. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waller, W. (1937) The rating and dating complex. American Sociological Review 12:727–34. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Westneat, D. F., Sherman, P. W. & Morton, M. L. (1990) The ecology and evolution of extra-pair copulations in birds. Current Ornithology 7:330–69. [LB]Google Scholar
White, D. R. (1989) Questioning the correlational evidence for Kipsigis wealth as a cause of reproductive success rather than polygyny as a cause of both extra children and extra wealth. American Anthropologist 91:175–78. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whyte, M. K. (1978) The status of women in preindustrial societies. Princeton University Press, [rDP]Google Scholar
Wigle, D. T. & Mao, Y. (1980) Mortality by income level in urban Canada. Department of National Health and Welfare, Non-Communicable Disease Division, Health Protection Branch, [aDP]Google Scholar
Williams, G. C. (1966) Adaptation and natural selection. Princeton University Press, [aDP, HK, NST]Google Scholar
Winterbottom, M. R. (1958) The relation of need for achievement to learning experiences in independence and mastery. In: Motives in fantasy, action, and society, ed. Atkinson, J. W.. Van Nostrand. [aDP]Google Scholar
Wittenberger, J. F. (1981) Animal social behavior. Wadsworth, [MDi]Google Scholar
Wrigley, E. A. (1966) Family limitation in preindustrial England. Economic History Review 19:82–109. [HK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zurayk, H. (1979) A two-stage analysis of the determinants of fertility in rural South Lebanon. Population Studies 33:489–504. [aDP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar