Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-hc48f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T12:13:37.735Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Précis of Deduction

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

Philip N. Johnson-Laird  and
Ruth M. J. Byrne
Philip N. Johnson-Laird
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544 Electronic mail: phil@clarity.princeton.edu
Ruth M. J. Byrne
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Trinity College, University of Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland Electronic mail: rmbyrne@vax1.tcd.ie
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

How do people make deductions? The orthodox view in psychology is that they use formal rules of inference like those of a “natural deduction” system. Deduction argues that their logical competence depends, not on formal rules, but on mental models. They construct models of the situation described by the premises, using their linguistic knowledge and their general knowledge. They try to formulate a conclusion based on these models that maintains semantic information, that expresses it parsimoniously, and that makes explicit something not directly stated by any premise. They then test the validity of the conclusion by searching for alternative models that might refute the conclusion. The theory also resolves long-standing puzzles about reasoning, including how nonmonotonic reasoning occurs in daily life. The book reports experiments on all the main domains of deduction, including inferences based on prepositional connectives such as “if” and “or,” inferences based on relations such as “in the same place as,” inferences based on quantifiers such as “none,” “any,” and “only,” and metalogical inferences based on assertions about the true and the false. Where the two theories make opposite predictions, the results confirm the model theory and run counter to the formal rule theories. Without exception, all of the experiments corroborate the two main predictions of the model theory: inferences requiring only one model are easier than those requiring multiple models, and erroneous conclusions are usually the result of constructing only one of the possible models of the premises.

Keywords

conditionalsdeductionformal rulesmental modelsnonmonotonic reasoningquantifiersrationalityreasoningsyllogismstheorem proving
Type
Target article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 16 , Issue 2 , June 1993 , pp. 323 - 333
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1993

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adams, E. W. (1975) The logic of conditionals. Reidel. [DO]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, C. A. (1982) Inoculation and counterexplanation: Debiasing techniques in the perseverance of social theories. Social Cognition 1:126–39. [JBaro]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, J. R. (1982) Acquisition of cognitive skill. Psychological Review 89:369–406. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arkes, H. R., Faust, D., Guilmette, T. J. & Hart, K. (1988) Eliminating the hindsight bias. Journal of Applied Psychology 73:305–7. [JBaro]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bach, K. (1970) Part of what a picture is. British Journal of Aesthetics 10:119–37. [KB]Google Scholar
Bach, K. (1984) Default reasoning: Jumping to conclusions and knowing when to think twice. Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 65:37–58. [KB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bara, B. G., Bueeiarelli, M. & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1992) The development of syllogistic reasoning. Unpublished paper. Center for Cognitive Science, University of Turin. [rPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Barnes, B. & Bloor, D. (1982) Relativism, rationalism, and the sociology of knowledge. In: Rationality and relativism, ed. Hollis, M. & Lukes, S.. Basil Black-well. [aPNJ-L, PE]Google Scholar
Baron, J. (1988) Thinking and deciding. Cambridge University Press. [JBaro]Google Scholar
Baron, J. (1991) Beliefs about thinking. In: Informal reasoning and education, ed. Voss, J. F., Perkins, D. N. & Segal, J. W.. Erlbaum. [JBaro]Google Scholar
Baron, J., Badgio, P. & Gaskins, I. W. (1986) Cognitive style and its improvement: A normative approach. In: Advances in the psychology of human intelligence, vol. 3, ed. Sternberg, R. J.. Erlbaum. [JBaro]Google Scholar
Baron, J., Badgio, P. & Ritov, Y. (1991) Departures from optimal stopping in an anagram task. Journal of Mathematical Psychology 35:41–63. [JBaro]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barwise, J. (1986) Conditionals and conditional information. In: On conditionals, ed. Ferguson, C., Reilly, J., ter Meulen, A., & Tragott, E. C.. Cambridge University Press. [ACBtM]Google Scholar
Barwise, J. (1989) The situation in logic. CSLI Lecture Notes, Stanford University. [ACBtM]Google Scholar
Barwise, J. & Etchemendy, J. (1991) Visual information and valid reasoning. In: Visualization in teaching and learning mathematics, ed. W. Ziminermann & S. Cunningham. M.A.A. Notes #19, Mathematical Association of America. [rPNJ-L, J Barw, KS]Google Scholar
Barwise, J., Gawron, J. M. & Tutiya, S., eds. (1990) Situation theory and its applications, vol. 2. CSLI Lecture Notes, Stanford University. [ACBtM]Google Scholar
Barwise, J. & Perry, J. (1983) Situations and attitudes. Bradford Books/MIT Press. [ACBtM]Google Scholar
Bauer, M. I. & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1993) How diagrams can improve reasoning. Psychological Science (in press). [rPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Beattie, J. & Baron, J. (1988) Confirmation and matching bias in hypothesis testing. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 40A:269–97. [JBaro]Google Scholar
Begg, I. & Denny, J. (1969) Empirical reconciliation of atmosphere and conversion interpretations of syllogistic reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology 81:351–54. [aPNJ–L]Google Scholar
Bereiter, C. & Seardamalia, M. (1989) Intentional learning as a goal of instruction. In: Knowing, learning and instruction: Essays in honour of Robert Closer. Erlbaum. [RJS]Google Scholar
Berkeley, C. (1710/1965) A treatise concerning the principles of human knowledge. Bobbs-Merrill. [KB]Google Scholar
Berry, D. C. & Broadbent, D. E. (1984) On the relationship between taskperformance and associated verbalizable knowledge. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 36A:209–31. [JStBTE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beth, E. W. (1955/1969) Semantic entailment and formal derivability. Mededelingen van de Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afdeling, Letterkunde, N. R. 18:309–42. Reprinted in Hintikka J. (ed.) The philosophy of mathematics. Oxford University Press, 1969. [aPNJ-L, ADA, JHF]Google Scholar
Beth, E. W. & Piaget, J. (1966) Mathematical epistemology and psychology. Reidel. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Blumberg, A. (1967) Logie, modern. In: The encyclopedia of philosophy, ed. Edwards, P.. Macmillan and The Free Press. [JHF]Google Scholar
Braine, M. D. S. (1978) On the relation between the natural logic of reasoning and standard logic. Psychological Review 85:1–21. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Braine, M. D. S. (1990) The “natural logic” approach to reasoning. In: Reasoning, necessity, and logic: Developmental perspectives, ed. Overton, W. F.. Erlbaum. [MDSB]Google Scholar
Braine, M. D. S. (1992) Approaches empiriques du langage de la pensée. In: Epistomologie et cognition, ed. Andler, D., Jacob, P., Proust, J., Récanati, F. & Sperber, D.. Pierre Mardaga. [MDSB]Google Scholar
Braine, M. D. S. (in press) The mental logie and how to discover it. In: The logical foundations of cognition, ed. Maenamara, J. & Reyes, G. E.. Oxford University Press (Oxford). [MDSB]Google Scholar
Braine, M. D. S., Reiser, B. J. & Rumain, B. (1984) Some empirical justification for a theory of natural prepositional logic. In: The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory, vol. 18, ed. Bower, C. H.. Academic Press. [aPNJ-L, MDSB, KMG]Google Scholar
Broadbent, D. E., Fitzgerald, P. & Broadbent, M. H. P. (1986) Implicit and explicit knowledge in the control of complex systems. British Journal of Psychology 77:33–50. [JStBTE]Google Scholar
Brown, A. L., Campione, J. C. & Day, J. D. (1981) Learning to learn: On training students to learn from texts. Educational Researcher 10:14–21. [RJS]Google Scholar
Brown, A. L. & Day, J. D. (1983) Maerorules for summarising texts: The development of expertise. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour 22:1–14. [RJS]Google Scholar
Bruner, J., Greenfield, P. & Oliver, R. (1966) Studies in cognitive growth. Wiley. [BGB]Google Scholar
Bryant, P. E. & Trabasso, T. (1971) Transitive inferences and memory in young children. Nature 232:456–58. [HD]Google Scholar
Bundy, A. (1973) Doing arithmetic with diagrams. In: Proceedings of the Third International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, ed. N. Nilsson. (Also available from Edinburgh as DCL Memo No. 61) [AB]Google Scholar
Burke, P. (1986) Strengths and weaknesses in the history of mentalities. History of European Ideas 7. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Byrne, R. M. J. (1989) Suppressing valid infererences with conditionals. Cognition 31:61–83. [arPNJ-L, SF, DO]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Byrne, R. M. J. (1991) Can valid inferences be suppressed? Cognition 39:71–78. [rPNJ-L, SF, DO]Google Scholar
Byrne, R. M. J. & Handley, S. J. (1992) Meta-deductive strategies. Unpublished paper. Department of Psychology, Trinity College, University of Dublin. [rPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Byrne, R. M. J. & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1989) Spatial reasoning. Journal of Memory and Language 28:564–75. [aPNJ-L]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Byrne, R. M. J. & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1990) Remembering conclusions we have inferred: What biases reveal. In: Cognitive biases: Their contribution for understanding human cognitive processes, ed. Caverni, J.-P., Fabre, J.-M. & Gonzalez, M.. North-Holland. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Byrne, R. M. J. & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1992) The spontaneous use of propositional connectives. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 45A:89–110. [rPNJ-L]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carey, S. (1991) Knowledge acquisition: Enrichment or conceptual change? In; The epigenesis of mind: Essays on biology and cognition, ed. Carey, S. & Gelman, R.. Erlbaum. [rPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Carroll, L. (1895) What Achilles said to the tortoise. Mind 4:278–80. [KB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ceci, S. J. & Liker, J. (1986) Academic and nonacademie intelligence: An experimental separation. In: Practical intelligence: Nature and origins of competence in the everyday world, ed. Sternberg, R. J. & Wagner, R. K.. Cambridge University Press. [RJS]Google Scholar
Chater, N. & Oaksford, M. (1993) Logic, mental models and everyday reasoning. Mind and Language (in press). [NC/MO]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheng, P. W. & Holyoak, K. J. (1985) Pragmatic reasoning schemas. Cognitive Psychology 17:391–416. [aPNJ-L, DWG, KIM]Google Scholar
Cheng, P. W., Holyoak, K. J., Nisbett, R. E. & Oliver, L. M. (1986) Pragmatic versus syntactic approaches to training deductive reasoning. Cognitive Psychology 18:293–328. [KMG]Google Scholar
Chi, M. T. H. (1978) Knowledge structures and memory development. In: Children's thinking: What develops? ed. Siegler, R.. Erlbaum. [RJS]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1965) Aspects of the theory of syntax. MIT Press. [rPNJ-L, BGB]Google Scholar
Churehland, P. S. (1986) Neurophilosophy. MIT Press. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Clark, H. H. (1969) Linguistic processes in deductive reasoning. Psychological Review 76:387–404. [aPNJ-L]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clifton, C. Jr., & Ferreira, F. (1987) Modularity in sentence comprehension. In: Modularity in knowledge representation and natural-language understanding, ed. Garfield, J.. MIT Press. [KMG]Google Scholar
Cohen, L. J. (1981) Can human irrationality be experimentally demonstrated? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 4(3):317–70. [LJC, PE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, A. & Michalski, R. (1989) The logie of plausible reasoning: A core theory. Cognitive Science 13:1–49. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Conan Doyle, A. (1892) A study in scarlet. Harper. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Cooper, R., Mukai, K. & Perry, J., eds. (1990) Situation theory and its applications, vol. 1. CSLI Lecture Notes, Stanford University. [AGBtM]Google Scholar
Cooper, W. S. (1968) The propositional logic of ordinary discourse. Inquiry 11:295–320. [rPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Cosmides, L. (1989) The logic of social exchange: Has natural selection shaped how humans reason? Studies with the Wason selection task. Cognition 31:187–276. [aPNJ-L, DWG, KIM, PP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Craik, K. (1943). The nature of explanation. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge). [arPNJ-L, PE]Google Scholar
Crawford, J. M. & Kuipers, B. J. (1991) Negation and proof by contradiction in access-limited logic. Proceedings of the Ninth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence. AAAI Press/MIT Press. [JMC]Google Scholar
Cummins, R. (1986) Inexplicit information. In: The representation of knowledge and belief, ed. Brand, M. & Harnish, R. M.. University of Arizona Press. [KB]Google Scholar
Davis, H. (1992) Transitive interference in rats. Journal of Comparative Psychology (in press). [HD]Google Scholar
Davis, H. (in press) Attributing consciousness to animals: Is it logical or necessary? In: Anthropomorphism, anecdotes and animals, ed. Mitchell, R. W., Thompson, N. S. & Miles, H. L.. University of Nebraska Press. [HD]Google Scholar
Donald, M. (1991) The origins of the modern mind: Three stages in the evolution of culture and cognition. Harvard University Press. [PE]Google Scholar
Duneker, K. (1926) A qualitative (experimental and theoretical) study of productive thinking (solution of complicated problems). Journal of Genetic Psychology 33:642–708. [ASL]Google Scholar
Duneker, K. (1945) On problem solving. (Translated by L. S. Lees). Psychological Monographs 58, no. 5. (Originally published in 1935.) [ASL]Google Scholar
Ehrlich, K. & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1982) Spatial descriptions and referential continuity. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 21:296–306. [rPNJ-L]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, W. D. (1938) A source book of Gestall psychology. Harcourt, Brace. [ASL]Google Scholar
Erickson, J. R. (1974) A set analysis theory of behavior in formal syllogistic reasoning tasks. In: Loyola Symposium on Cognition, vol. 2, ed. Solso, R.. Erlbaum. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Ericsson, K. A. & Simon, H. A. (1984) Protocol analysis: Verbal Reports as data. MIT Press. [MDSB]Google Scholar
Evans, J. St. B. (1977) Linguistic factors in reasoning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 29:297–306. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Evans, J. St. B. (1987) Reasoning. Psychological Survey 6:74–93. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Evans, J. St. B. (1989) Bias in human reasoning: Causes and consequences. Erlbaum. [aPNJ-L, PL]Google Scholar
Evans, J. St. B. (1991) Review of Johnson-Laird & Byrne, Deduction. Erlbaum. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 43A:916–17. [JStBTE]Google Scholar
Evans, J. St. B. T. (in press) Bias and rationality. In: Rationality, ed. Manktelow, K. I. & Over, D. E.. Routledge. [rPNJ-L, PE, KIM]Google Scholar
Evans, J. St.B. T., Barston, J. L. & Pollard, P. (1983) On the conflict between logic and belief in syllogistic reasoning. Memory and Cognition 11:295–306. [SEN]Google Scholar
Evans, J. St.B. T., Over, D. E. & Manktelow, K. I. (1992) Reasoning as decision making: One kind of rationality. Cognition (in press). [DO]Google Scholar
Falmagne, R. J. (1988) Language as a constitutive factor in logical knowledge: Cognitive, philosophical and linguistic considerations. Cognitive Science Laboratory, Technical Report 28, Princeton University. [RJF]Google Scholar
Falmagne, R. J. (1992) Reflections on acquisition processes. In: Analytic approaches to human cognition, ed. Alegria, J., Holender, D., Junea de Morais, J. & Radeau, M.. Elsevier. [RJF]Google Scholar
Fisher, A. (1989) The logic of real argument. Cambridge University Press. [AF]Google Scholar
Fitting, M. C. (1983) Proof methods for modal and intuitionistic logic. Reidel. [ADA]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fodor, J. A. (1975) The language of thought. Harvard University Press. [MDSB]Google Scholar
Fodor, J. A. (1983) The modularity of mind. Bradford Books/MIT Press. [NC, KMG, MO]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ford, M. (1985) Review of “mental models.” Language 61:897–903. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Freeman, J. (1987) Thinking logically. Prentice-Hall. [AF]Google Scholar
Galotti, K. M. (1989) Approaches to studying formal and everyday reasoning. Psychological Bulletin 105:331–51. [JBaro, KMG]Google Scholar
Galotti, K. M., Baron, J. & Sabini, J. P. (1986) Individual differences in syllogistic reasoning: Deduction rules or mental models? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 115:16–25. [arPNJ-L, KMG, RJS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garey, M. R. & Johnson, D. S. (1979) Computers and intractability: A guide to the theory of NP-completeness. Freeman. [MO]Google Scholar
Garnham, A. (1987) Mental models as representations of discourse and text. Ellis Horwood. [arPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Garnham, A. (1993) Is logieist cognitive science possible? Mind and Language (in press). [NC, MO]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gentner, D. & Stevens, A. L., eds. (1983) Mental models. Erlbaum. [MDSB]Google Scholar
Gigerenzer, G. & Hug, K. (1992) Domain-specific reasoning: Social contracts, cheating, and perspective change. Cognition 43:127–71. [DWG]Google Scholar
Gilbert, D. T. (1991) How mental systems believe. American Psychologist 46:107–19. [DWG]Google Scholar
Gillan, D. J. (1981) Reasoning in the chimpanzee: II. Transitive inference. Journal of Experimental Psychology 7:150–64. [HD]Google Scholar
Giordano, F. R. & Weir, M. D. (1985) A first course in mathematical modeling. Addison-Wesley. [ASL]Google Scholar
Givan, R., McAllester, D. & Shalaby, S. (1991) Natural language based inference procedures applied to Schubert's steamroller. Proceedings of the Ninth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence.AAAI Press/MIT Press. [JMC]Google Scholar
Glymour, C. (1987) Android epistemology and the frame problem: Comments on Dennett's Cognitive wheels. In: The robot's dilemma: The frame problem in artificial intelligence, ed. Pylyshyn, Z. W.. Ablex. [MO]Google Scholar
Goldman, A. I. (1986) Epistemology and cognition. Harvard University press. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Goodman, N. (1966) Fact, fiction and forecast. Hackett. [PE]Google Scholar
Goodman, N. (1968) Languages of art. Bobbs-Merrill. [KB]Google Scholar
Goodman, N. (1954/1983) Fact, fiction and forecast. 4th ed.Harvard University Press. [MO]Google Scholar
Govier, T. (1981) A practical study of argument (2nd ed.). Wadsworth. [AF]Google Scholar
Green, D. W. (1992) Counter-examples and the selection task: Fleshing-out the model. Paper presented to the Wason Symposium at the Second International Conference on Thinking. University of Plymouth, England, July 27–30. [DWG]Google Scholar
Greene, S. B. (1992) Multiple explanations for multiply quantified sentences: Are multiple models necessary? Psychological Review 99:184–87. [PP]Google Scholar
Grice, H. P. (1975) Logic and conversation. In: Syntax and semantics, vol. 3: Speech acts. ed. Cole, P. & Morgan, J. L.. Seminar Press. [rPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Griffin, D. R. (1974) Animal thinking. Harvard University Press. [HD]Google Scholar
Griggs, R. A. (1983) The role of problem content in the selection task and in the THOG problem. In: Thinking and reasoning: Psychological approaches, ed. Evans, J. St. B. T.. Routledge & Kegan Paul. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Griggs, R. A. & Cox, J. R. (1982) The elusive thematic-materials effect in Wason's selection task. British Journal of Psychology 73:407–20. [aPNJ- L, PP]Google Scholar
Griggs, R. A. & Newstead, S. E. (1982) The role of problem structure in a deductive reasoning task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Language. Memory, and Cognition 8:297–307. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Gustason, W. & Ulrich, E. (1973) Elementary symbolic logic. Holt, Rinehart & Winston. [JHF]Google Scholar
Guyote, M. J. & Sternberg, R. J. (1981) A transitive-chain theory of syllogistic reasoning. Cognitice Psychology 13:461–525. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Hagert, G. (1984) Modeling mental models: Experiments in cognitive modeling of spatial reasoning. In: Advances in artificial intelligence, ed. O'Shea, T.. North-Holland. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Hanks, S. & McDennott, D. (1985) Default reasoning, nonmonotonic logics and the frame problem. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Artificial Intelligence. Philadelphia, PA. [MO]Google Scholar
Hanks, S. & McDennott, D. (1986) Temporal reasoning and default logics. Computer Science Technical Report, No. 430, Yale University. [MO]Google Scholar
Hanks, S. & McDennott, D. (1987) Nonmonotonic logic and temporal projection. Artificial Intelligence 33:379–412. [NC]Google Scholar
Harman, G. (1986) Change in view: Principles of reasoning. Bradford Books/MIT Press. [rPNJ-L, KB]Google Scholar
Henle, M. (1962) The relation between logic and thinking. Psychological Review, 69:366–78. [ASL]Google Scholar
Henle, M. (1978) Foreword to Human reasoning, ed. Revlin, R. & Mayer, R. E.. Winston. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Hintikka, J. (1955) Form and content in quantification theory. Acta Philosophica Fennica 8:7–55. [arPNJ-L, ADA]Google Scholar
Hoch, S. J. (1985) Counterfactual reasoning and accuracy in predicting personal events. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 11:719–31. [JBaro]Google Scholar
Hollis, M. (1970) Reason and ritual. In: Rationality, ed. Wilson, B. R.. Basil Blackwell. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Huttenlocher, J. (1968) Constructing spatial images: A strategy in reasoning. Psychological Review 75:286–98. [aPNJ-L, HD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Inder, R. (1987) Computer simulation of syllogism solving using restricted mental models. Doctoral Dissertation, Center for Cognitive Science, University of Edinburgh. [RI]Google Scholar
Inhelder, B. & Piaget, J. (1958) The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence. Routledge & Kegan Paul. [aPNJ-L, HD, ASL]Google Scholar
Jackendoff, R. (1988) Exploring the form of information in the dynamic unconscious. In: Psychodynamics and cognition, ed. Horowitz, M. J.. University of Chicago Press. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Jackson, S. L. & Griggs, R. A. (1990) The elusive pragmatic reasoning schemas effect. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 42A:353–73. [PP]Google Scholar
Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1975) Models of deduction. In: Reasonings: Representation and process in children and adults, ed. Falmagne, R. J.. Erlbaum. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1983) Mental models: Towards a cognitive science of language, inference, and consciousness. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge). [arPNJ-L, JBarw, BJM, SEN, MO, NEW]Google Scholar
Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1986) Conditionals and mental models. In: On conditionals, ed. Ferguson, C., Reilly, J., ter Meulen, A., Tragott, E. C.Cambridge University Press. [AGBtM]Google Scholar
Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1990a) Prepositional reasoning: An algorithm for deriving parsimonious conclusions. Unpublished paper. Princeton University. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1990b) The development of reasoning ability. In: Causes of development: Interdisciplinary perspectives, ed. Butterworth, G. & Bryant, P.. Harvester Wheatsheaf. [rPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1992) Human and machine thinking. Erlbaum. [rPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Johnson-Laird, P. N. & Bara, B. C. (1984) Syllogistic inference. Cognition 16:1–61. [arPNJ-L, JStBTE, DWG, WH, SEN, NEW]Google Scholar
Johnson-Laird, P. N., Byrne, R. M. J. (1989) Only reasoning. Journal of Memory and Language 28:313–30. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Johnson-Laird, P. N., Byrne, R. M. J. (1990) Meta-logienl problems: Knights, knaves, and Rips. Cognition 36:69–81. [aPNJ-L]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson-Laird, P. N., Byrne, R. M. J. (1991) Deduction. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Johnson-Laird, P. N., Byrne, R. M. J. (1992) Modal reasoning, models, and Manktelow and Over. Cognition 43:173–82. [rPNJ-L, KIM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson-Laird, P. N., Byrne, R. M. J. & Schacken, W. (1992) Propositional reasoning by model. Psychological Review 99:418–39. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Johnson-Laird, P. N., Byrne, R. M. J. & Tabossi, P. (1989) Reasoning by model: The case of multiple quantification. Psychological Review 96:658–73. [arPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Johnson-Laird, P. N., Byrne, R. M. J. & Tabossi, P. (1992) In defense of reasoning: A reply to Greene (1992). Psychological Review 99:188–90. [PP]Google Scholar
Johnson-Laird, P. N. & Wason, P. C. (1970) Insight into a logical relation. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 22:49–61. [KIM]Google Scholar
Kamp, H. & Reyle, U. (1992) From discourse to logic. Kluwer Academic. [AGBtM]Google Scholar
Keil, F. C. (1991) The emergence of theoretical beliefs as constraints on concepts. In: The epigenesis of mind: Essays on biology and cognition, ed. Carey, S. & Gelman, R., Erlbaum. [rPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Köhler, W. (1938) The place of value in a world of fact. Liveright. [ASL]Google Scholar
Koriat, A., Liechtenstein, S. & Fischhoff, B. (1980) Reasons for confidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 6:107–18. [JBaro]Google Scholar
Kuhn, D. (1991) The skills of argument. Cambridge University Press. [JBaro].Google Scholar
Larkin, J. H., McDermott, J., Simon, D. & Simon, H. A. (1980) Expert and novice performance in solving physics problems. Science 208:1335–42. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, G. & Oakhill, J. (1984) The effects of externalization on syllogistic reasoning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 36A:519–30. [DWG]Google Scholar
Legrenzi, P. (1970) Relations between language and reasoning about deductive rules. In: Advances in psycholinguistics, ed. Flores D'Arcais, G. B. & Levelt, W. J. M.. North-Holland. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Legrenzi, P., Girotto, V. & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1992) Focussing in reasoning and decision making. Manuscript submitted. [rPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Leslie, A. & Thaiss, L. (1992) Domain specificity in conceptual development: Neuropsychological evidence from autism. Cognition 43:225–51. [DWG]Google Scholar
Luchins, A. S. & Luchins, E. H. (1964) On awareness and denotation of contradictions. Journal of General Psychology 71:233–46. [ASL]Google ScholarPubMed
Luchins, A. S. & Luchins, E. H. (1965a) Reactions to inconsistencies: Phenomenal versus logical contradictions. Journal of General Psychology 73:47–65. [ASL]Google Scholar
Luchins, A. S. & Luchins, E. H. (1965b) Logical foundations of mathematics for behavioral scientists. Holt, Reinhart and Winston. [ASL]Google Scholar
Luchins, A. S. & Luchins, E. H. (1970) Wertheimer's seminars revisited: Problem solving and thinking, vols. 1 & 2. Faculty Student Association. SUNY-Albany. [ASL]Google Scholar
Luchins, A. S. & Luchins, E. H. (1978) Revisiting Wertheimer's seminars, vol. 1. Values, social influences, and power. Associated University Presses. [ASL]Google Scholar
Luchins, A. S. & Luchins, E. H. (1987) Max Wertheimer in America: Part I. Gestalt Theory 9(2):70–101. [ASL]Google Scholar
Luchins, A. S. & Luchins, E. H. (1991) Max Wertheimer: His life and work. vols. 1 & 2. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. [ASL]Google Scholar
Macnamara, J. (1986) A border dispute: The place of logic in psychology. Bradford Books/MIT Press. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Madruga, J. A. G. (1984) Procesos de error en el razonamiento silogistico: Doble procesamiento y estrategia de verificacion por. In: Lecturas de psicologia del pensamiento, ed. Carretero, M. & Madruga, J. A. G.. Alianza. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Manktelow, K. I. & Over, D. E. (1987) Reasoning and rationality. Mind and Language 2:199–219. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Manktelow, K. I. & Over, D. E. (1991) Social roles and utilities in reasoning with deontic conditionals. Cognition 39:85–105. [KIM]Google Scholar
Manktelow, K. I. & Over, D. E. (1992a) Utility and deontic reasoning: Some comments on Johnson-Laird and Byrne. Cognition 43:183–88. [KIM]Google Scholar
Manktelow, K. I. & Over, D. E. (1992b) Rationality, utility, and deontic reasoning. In: Rationality, ed. K. I. Manktelow & D. E. Over. Routledge (in press). [DO]Google Scholar
Marr, D. (1982) Vision: A computational investigation into the human representation and processing of visual information. Freeman. [arPNJ-L, KB]Google Scholar
McCarthy, J. M. (1980) Circumseription – a form of non-monotonic reasoning. Artificial Intelligence 13:27–39. [NC]Google Scholar
McCarthy, J. M. & Hayes, P. J. (1969) Some philosophical problems from the standpoint of artificial intelligence. In: Machine intelligence 4, ed. Meltzer, B. & Michie, D.. Edinburgh University Press. [NC]Google Scholar
McCluskey, E. J. (1956) Minimization of Boolean functions. Bell System Technical Journal 35:1417–44. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
McDermott, D. (1986) A critique of pure reason. Technical Report, Department of Computer Science, Yale University, 06, 1986. [MO]Google Scholar
McDermott, D. (1987) A critique of pure reason. Computational Intelligence 3:151–60. [aPNJ-L, NC]Google Scholar
McGinn, C. (1989) Mental content. Basil Blackwell. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
McGonigle, B. O. & Chalmers, M. (1977) Are monkeys logical? Nature 267:694–96. [HD]Google Scholar
ter Meulen, A. (1992) Representing time in natural language. The dynamic interpretation of tense and aspect. Bradford Books/MIT Press (in press). [AGBtM]Google Scholar
Miller, G. A. & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1976) Language and perception. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge). [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Morton, A. (1988) Making arguments explicit: The theoretical interest of practical difficulties. In: Critical thinking: Proceedings of the First British Conference on Informal Logic and Critical Thinking, ed. Fisher, A.. University of East Anglia Press. [rPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Newell, A. (1981) Reasoning, problem solving and decision processes: The problem space as a fundamental category. In: Attention and performance, vol. 8, ed. Nickerson, R.. Erlbaum. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Newell, A. (1990) Unified theories of cognition. Harvard University Press. [arPNJ-L, NEW]Google Scholar
Newstead, S. E. (1989) Interpretational errors in syllogistic reasoning. Journal of Memory and Language 28:78–91. [PP]Google Scholar
Newstead, S. E., Maaktelow, K. I. & Evans, J. St. B. T. (1982) The role of imagery in the representation of linear orderings. Current Psychological Research 2:21–32. [rPNJ-L]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newstead, S. E., Pollard, P., Evans, J. St.B. T. & Allen, J. L. (1992) The source of belief bias effects in syllogistic reasoning. Cognition. [SEN]Google Scholar
Nisbett, R. E. & Ross, L. (1980) Human inference: Strategies and shortcomings of social judgment. Prentice Hall. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Oakhill, J. V. & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1985a) Rationality, memory and the search for counterexamples. Cognition 20:79–94. [rPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Oakhill, J. V. & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1985b) The effects of belief on the spontaneous production of syllogistic conclusions. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 37A:553–69. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Oakhill, J. V., Johnson-Laird, P. N. & Garnham, A. (1989) Believability and syllogistic reasoning. Cognition 31:117–40. [aPNJ-L, SEN]Google Scholar
Oaksford, M. & Chater, N. (1991) Against logieist cognitive science. Mind and Language 6:1–38. [NC, MO]Google Scholar
Oaksford, M. & Chater, N. (1992a) Reasoning theories and bounded rationality. In: Rationality, ed. Manktelow, K. & Over, D.. Routledge. [MO]Google Scholar
Oaksford, M. & Chater, N. (1992b) Bounded rationality in taking risks and drawing inferences. Theory & Psychology 2:225–30. [MO]Google Scholar
O'Brien, D. P. (in press) Mental logic and irrationality: We can put a mail on the moon, so why can't we solve those logical reasoning problems? In: Rationality, ed. K. I. Manktelow & D. E. Over. Routledge. [MDSB, DO]Google Scholar
O'Brien, F. (1939/1967) At swim-two-birds. Penguin Books. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Oden, G. C. (1987) Concept knowledge and thought. Annual Review of Psychology 38:203–27. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Osherson, D. (1975) Logic and models of logical thinking. In: Reasoning: Representation and process in children and adults, ed. Falmagne, R. J.. Erlbaum. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Partee, B., ter Meulen, A. & Wall, R. (1990) Mathematical methods in linguistics. Kluwer. [AGBtM]Google Scholar
Peakcocke, C. (1986) Explanation in computation psychology: Language, perception, and level 1.5. Mind & Language 1:101–23. [KB]Google Scholar
Perkins, D. N., Faraday, M. & Bushey, B. (1991) Everyday reasoning and the roots of intelligence. In: Informal reasoning and education, ed. Voss, J. F., Perkins, D. N. & Segal, J. W.. Erlbaum. [JBaro]Google Scholar
Piaget, J. (1970) Genetic epistemology (translated by Duckworth, Elinor). Columbia University Press. [HD]Google Scholar
Piaget, J. (1977) The essential Piaget: An interpretative reference and guide, ed. Gruber, H. E. & Voneche, J. J.. Basic Books. [BGB]Google Scholar
Politzer, G. & Braine, M. D. S. (1991) Responses to inconsistent premisses cannot count as suppression of valid inferences. Cognition 38:103–8. [rPNJ-L, SF, DO]Google Scholar
Polk, T. A. & Newell, A. (1988) Modeling human syllogistic reasoning in Soar. In: Tenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society 181–87. Erlbaum. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Polk, T. A. & Newell, A. (1992) A verbal reasoning theory for categorical syllogisms. Unpublished paper. Department of Psychology, Carnegie Mellon University. [rPNJ-L, TAP]Google Scholar
Pollock, J. (1989) How to build a person: A prolegomenon. Bradford Books/MIT Press. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Popper, K. H. (1934/1959) The logic of scientific discovery. Basic Books. [BGB]Google Scholar
Prier, R. A. (1976) Archaic logic: Symbol and structure in lleraclitus, Parmenides, and Empedocles. Mouton. [BJM]Google Scholar
Pullman, G. K. (1991) The great Eskimo vocabulary hoax and other irreverent essays on the study of language. University of Chicago Press. [KMG]Google Scholar
Pylyshyn, Z. (1980) Computation and cognition: Issues in the foundations of cognitive science. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3:111–32. [RI]Google Scholar
Pylyshyn, Z. (1981) The imagery debate: Analogue media versus tacit knowledge. In: Imagery, ed. Block, N.. MIT Press. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Quine, W. V. O. (1953) Two dogmas of empiricism. In: From a logical point of view. ed. Quine, W. V. O.. Harvard University Press. [MO]Google Scholar
Quine, W. V. O. (1955) A way to simplify truth functions. American Mathematical Monthly 59:521–31. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Rawls, J. (1970) A theory of justice. Harvard University Press. [PE]Google Scholar
Reiter, R. (1973) A semantically guided deductive system for automatic theorem-proving. Proceedings of Third International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence 41–46. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Reiter, R. (1978/1985) On reasoning by default. In: Readings in knowledge representation ed. Brachman, R. & Levesque, H.. Morgan Kaufman. [MO]Google Scholar
Richardson, J. T. E. (1987) The role of mental imagery in models of transitive inference. British Journal of Psychology 78:189–203. [rPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Riley, C. A. & Trabasso, T. (1974) Comparatives, logical structures, and encoding in a transitive inference task. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 17:187–203. [HD]Google Scholar
Rips, L. J. (1983) Cognitive processes in propositional reasoning. Psychological Review 90:38–71. [aPNJ-L, KMG]Google Scholar
Rips, L. J. (1986) Mental muddles. In: The representation of knowledge and belief, ed. Brand, M. & Harnish, R. M.. University of Arizona Press. [aPNJ-L. KB]Google Scholar
Rips, L. J. (1989) The psychology of knights and knaves. Cognition 31:85–116. [aPNJ-L]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rogoff, B. & Lave, J., eds. (1984) Everyday cognition: Its development in social context. Harvard University Press. [KMG]Google Scholar
Rumelhart, D. E. (1979) Analogical processes and procedural representation (Technical Report No. 81). Center for Human Information Processing, University of California, San Diego. [PP]Google Scholar
Rumelhart, D. E. (1980) Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In: Theoretical issues in reading comprehension, ed. Spiro, R. J., Bruce, B. C. & Brewer, W. F.. Erlbanm. [PP]Google Scholar
Rumelhart, D. E. (1989) Towards a microstruetural account of human reasoning. In: Similarity and analogical reasoning, ed. Vosniadou, S. & Ortony, A.. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge). [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Rumelhart, D., Smolensky, P., McClelland, J. L. & Hinton, G. E. (1986) Schemata and sequential thought processes in PDP models. In: Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition, vol. 2: Psychological and biological models, ed. McClelland, J. M. & Rumelhart, D.. MIT Press. [JStBTE]Google Scholar
Russell, J. (1987) Rule-following, mental models, and the developmental view. In: Meaning and the growth of understanding: Wittgenstein's significance for developmental psychology, ed. Chapman, M. & Dixon, R. A.. Springer. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Scribner, S. (1986) Some characteristics of practical thought. In: Practical intelligence, ed. Sternberg, R. J. & Wagner, R.. Cambridge University Press. [KMG]Google Scholar
Selz, O. (1935) Versuche zur Hebung des Inteiligenzniveaus: Ein Beitrag zur Theorie der Intelligenz und ihrer erziehlichen Beeinflussung. Zeitschrift für Psychologie 134:236–301. [JBaro]Google Scholar
Shallice, T. (1988) From neuropsychology to mental structure. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge). [DWG]Google Scholar
Shastri, L. & Ajjanagadde, V. G. (1990) An optimal limited inference system. Proceedings of the Eighth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence. AAAI Press/MIT Press. [JMC]Google Scholar
Shaw, G. B. (1933) The adventures of the black girl in her search for God. Cited by Skinner, B. F. (1953) Science and human behavior. Macmillan. [HD]Google Scholar
Shoham, Y. (1987) Reasoning about change: Time and causation from the standpoint of artificial intelligence. MIT Press. [NC]Google Scholar
Simon, H. A. (1991) Models of my life. Basic Books. [rPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Smullyan, R. M. (1968) First order logic. Springer-Verlag. [aPNJ-L, ADA]Google Scholar
Sperber, D. & Wilson, D. (1986) Relevance: Communication and cognition. Basil Blackwell. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Stenning, K. (1992) Distinguishing conceptual and empirical issues about mental models. In: Models in the mind, ed. Rogers, Y., Rutherford, A. & Bibby, P.. Academic Press. [KS]Google Scholar
Stenning, K. & Oaksford, M. R. (in press) Rational reasoning and human implementations of logic. In: Rationality, ed. K. Manktelow & D. Over. Routledge and Kegan Paul. [KS]Google Scholar
Stenning, K. & Oberlander, J. (Submitted) A cognitive theory of graphical and linguistic reasoning: Logic and implementation. Research Paper 20. Human Communication Research Centre. University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh. [KS]Google Scholar
Stich, S. (1990) The fragmentation of reason. MIT Press. [PE]Google Scholar
Thomas, S. (1986) Practical reasoning in natural language (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. [AF]Google Scholar
Toulmin, S. E. (1958) The uses of argument. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge). [rPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Traugott, E., ter Meulen, A., Reilly, J. & Ferguson, C., eds. (1986) On conditionals. Cambridge University Press. [AGBtM]Google Scholar
Tversky, A. & Kahneman, D. (1973) Availability: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability. Cognitive Psychology 5:207–32. [rPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Tweney, R. D. (1989) A framework for the cognitive psychology of science. In: Psychology of science: Contributions to metascience, ed. Gholson, B., Shadish, W. R. Jr, Neimeyer, H. A. & Houts, A. C.. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge). [RDT]Google Scholar
Tweney, R. D., Doherty, M. E. & Mynatt, C. R., eds. (1981) On scientific thinking. Columbia University Press. [RDT]Google Scholar
von Fersen, L., Wynne, C. D. L., Delius, J. & Stadden, J. E. R. (1991) Transitive inference formation in pigeons. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 17:334–41. [HD]Google Scholar
Wason, P. C. (1965) The context of plausible denial. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 4:7–11. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Wason, P. C. (1966) Reasoning. In: New horizons in psychology, ed. Foss, B. M.. Penguin. [arPNJ-L, PL]Google Scholar
Wason, P. C. (1983) Realism and rationality in the selection task. In: Thinking and reasoning: Psychological approaches, ed. Evans, J. St. B. T.. Routledge & Kegan Paul. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Wason, P. C. & Green, D. W. (1984) Reasoning and mental representation. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 36A:597–610. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Wason, P. C. & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1972) Psychology of reasoning: Structure and content. Harvard University Press. [aPNJ-L, BCB]Google Scholar
Wertheimer, M. (1912) Numbers and numerical concepts in primitive peoples (abridged translation). In: A source book of Gestalt psychology, ed. Ellis, W. D. (1938). Harcourt, Brace. [ASL]Google Scholar
Wertheimer, M. (1925) The syllogism and productive thinking (abridged translation). In: A source book of Gestalt psychology, ed. Ellis, W. D. (1938). Harcourt, Brace. [ASL]Google Scholar
Wertheimer, M. (1934) On truth. Social Research 1:135–46. [ASL]Google Scholar
Wertheimer, M. (1945) Productive thinking. Enlarged edition (1959). Harper. [ASL]Google Scholar
Wertheimer, M. (1961) Productive thinking. Tavistock. [JStBTE]Google Scholar
Wetherick, N. E. (1989) Psychology and syllogistic reasoning. Philosophical Psychology 2:111–24. [NEW]Google Scholar
Wetherick, N. E. (1991) What goes on in the mind when we solve syllogisms? In: Mental images in human cognition, ed. Logie, R. H. & Denis, M.. North Holland. [NEW]Google Scholar
Wetherick, N. E. (in press) Human rationality. In: Rationality, ed. K. I. Manktelow & D. E. Over. Routledge. [NEW]Google Scholar
Wetherick, N. & Gilhooly, K. (1990) Syllogistic reasoning: Effects of premise order. In: Lines of thinking: Reflections on the psychology of thought, vol. 1, ed. Gilhooly, K. J., Keane, M. T. G., Logic, R. H. & Erdos, G.. Wiley. [aPNJ-L, NEW]Google Scholar
Wise, M. N. (1979) The mutual embrace of electricity and magnetism. Science 203:1310–18. [rPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Wood, D. J. (1969) The nature and development of problem solving strategies. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. University of Nottingham. [RJS]Google Scholar
Woodworth, R. S. (1938) Experimental psychology. Holt. [MDSB]Google Scholar
Woodworth, R. S. & Sells, S. B. (1935) An atmosphere effect in formal syllogistic reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology 18:451–60. [aPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Yates, J. (1985) The content of awareness is a model of the world. Psychological Review 92:249–85. [rPNJ-L]Google Scholar
Yule, P. & Stenning, K. (1992) The figural effect and a graphical algorithm for syllogistic reasoning. In: Proceedings of the Fourteenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, Bloomington, Indiana. [KS]Google Scholar