Hostname: page-component-7dd5485656-frp75 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-10-31T05:10:01.667Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A cognitive load delays predictive eye movements similarly during L1 and L2 comprehension

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 March 2017

AINE ITO Open the ORCID record for AINE ITO [Opens in a new window] ,
MARTIN CORLEY  and
MARTIN J. PICKERING
AINE ITO*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom Faculty of Linguistics, Philology & Phonetics, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
MARTIN CORLEY
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
MARTIN J. PICKERING
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
*
Address for correspondence: Aine Ito, Faculty of Linguistics, Philology & Phonetics, University of Oxford, Clarendon Institute, Walton Street, Oxford, OX1 2HG, United Kingdomaine.ito@ling-phil.ox.ac.uk
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

We used the visual world eye-tracking paradigm to investigate the effects of cognitive load on predictive eye movements in L1 (Experiment 1) and L2 (Experiment 2) speakers. Participants listened to sentences whose verb was predictive or non-predictive towards one of four objects they were viewing. They then clicked on a mentioned object. Half the participants additionally performed a working memory task of remembering words. Both L1 and L2 speakers looked more at the target object predictively in predictable- than in non-predictable sentences when they performed the listen-and-click task only. However, this predictability effect was delayed in those who performed the concurrent memory task. This pattern of results was similar in L1 and L2 speakers. L1 and L2 speakers make predictions, but cognitive resources are required for making predictive eye movements. The findings are compatible with the claim that L2 speakers use the same mechanisms as L1 speakers to make predictions.

Keywords

predictionworking memorybilingualismcomprehensionvisual worldeye-tracking

Information

Type
Research Article
Information
Bilingualism: Language and Cognition , Volume 21 , Issue 2 , March 2018 , pp. 251 - 264
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

Footnotes

*We would like to thank Madeleine Beveridge for help creating and recording the stimuli.

References

Altmann, G. T. M., & Kamide, Y. (1999). Incremental interpretation at verbs: Restricting the domain of subsequent reference. Cognition, 73 (3), 247–264.Google Scholar
Baayen, H. R., Davidson, D. J., & Bates, D. M. (2008). Mixed-effects modeling with crossed random effects for subjects and items. Journal of Memory and Language, 59 (4), 390–412.Google Scholar
Baayen, H. R., Piepenbrock, R., & Gulikers, L. (1995). The CELEX lexical database (CD-ROM). Philadelphia, PA.Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. (2000). The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4 (11), 417–423.Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. (2012). Working memory: Theories, models, and controversies. Annual Review of Psychology, 63 (1), 1–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barr, D. J. (2008). Analyzing “visual world” eyetracking data using multilevel logistic regression. Journal of Memory and Language, 59 (4), 457–474.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bates, D. M., Maechler, M., & Dai, B. (2008). Lme4: Linear mixed-effects models using S4 classes.Google Scholar
Borovsky, A., Elman, J. L., & Fernald, A. (2012). Knowing a lot for one's age: Vocabulary skill and not age is associated with anticipatory incremental sentence interpretation in children and adults. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 112 (4), 417–436.Google Scholar
Brysbaert, M., Warriner, A. B., & Kuperman, V. (2014). Concreteness ratings for 40 thousand generally known English word lemmas. Behavior Research Methods, 46 (3), 904–11.Google Scholar
Chambers, C. G., & Cooke, H. (2009). Lexical competition during second-language listening: sentence context, but not proficiency, constrains interference from the native lexicon. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35 (4), 1029–1040.Google Scholar
Chambers, C. G., Tanenhaus, M. K., & Magnuson, J. S. (2004). Actions and affordances in syntactic ambiguity resolution. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30 (3), 687–696.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dahan, D., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (2004). Continuous mapping from sound to meaning in spoken-language comprehension: Immediate effects of verb-based thematic constraints. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30 (2), 498–513.Google Scholar
Dell, G. S., & Chang, F. (2014). The P-chain: relating sentence production and its disorders to comprehension and acquisition. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 369, 20120394.Google Scholar
Dijkgraaf, A., Hartsuiker, R. J., & Duyck, W. (2016). Predicting upcoming information in native-language and non-native-language auditory word recognition. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1017/S1366728916000547 Google Scholar
Ellis, E. M., Borovsky, A., Elman, J. L., & Evans, J. L. (2015). Novel word learning: An eye-tracking study. Are 18-month-old late talkers really different from their typical peers? Journal of Communication Disorders, 58, 43–157.Google Scholar
Ferretti, T. R., McRae, K., & Hatherell, A. (2001). Integrating verbs, situation schemas, and thematic role concepts. Journal of Memory and Language, 44 (4), 516–547.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gordon, P. C., Hendrick, R., & Levine, W. H. (2002). Memory-load interference in syntactic processing. Psychological Science: A Journal of the American Psychological Society / APS, 13 (5), 425–430.Google Scholar
Huettig, F. (2015). Four central questions about prediction in language processing. Brain Research, 1626, 118–135.Google Scholar
Huettig, F., & Altmann, G. T. M. (2005). Word meaning and the control of eye fixation: Semantic competitor effects and the visual world paradigm. Cognition, 96 (1), 23–32.Google Scholar
Huettig, F., & Janse, E. (2016). Individual differences in working memory and processing speed predict anticipatory spoken language processing in the visual world. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 31 (1), 80–93.Google Scholar
Huettig, F., Olivers, C. N. L., & Hartsuiker, R. J. (2011). Looking, language, and memory: Bridging research from the visual world and visual search paradigms. Acta Psychologica, 137 (2), 138–150.Google Scholar
Huettig, F., Rommers, J., & Meyer, A. S. (2011). Using the visual world paradigm to study language processing: A review and critical evaluation. Acta Psychologica, 137 (2), 151–171.Google Scholar
Ito, A., Corley, M., Pickering, M. J., Martin, A. E., & Nieuwland, M. S. (2016). Predicting form and meaning: Evidence from brain potentials. Journal of Memory and Language, 86, 157–171.Google Scholar
Ito, A., Martin, A. E., & Nieuwland, M. S. (2016). On predicting form and meaning in a second language. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/xlm0000315.Google Scholar
Kaan, E. (2014). Predictive sentence processing in L2 and L1: What is different? Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 4 (2), 257–282.Google Scholar
Kamide, Y., Altmann, G. T. M., & Haywood, S. L. (2003). The time-course of prediction in incremental sentence processing: Evidence from anticipatory eye movements. Journal of Memory and Language, 49 (1), 133–156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kamide, Y., Scheepers, C., & Altmann, G. T. M. (2003). Integration of syntactic and semantic information in predictive procesing: Cross-linguistic evidence from German and English. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 32 (1), 37–55.Google Scholar
Knoeferle, P., Crocker, M. W., Scheepers, C., & Pickering, M. J. (2005). The influence of the immediate visual context on incremental thematic role-assignment: Evidence from eye-movements in depicted events. Cognition, 95 (1), 95–127.Google Scholar
Kukona, A., Fang, S. Y., Aicher, K. A., Chen, H., & Magnuson, J. S. (2011). The time course of anticipatory constraint integration. Cognition, 119 (1), 23–42.Google Scholar
Kuperberg, G. R., & Jaeger, T. F. (2016). What do we mean by prediction in language comprehension? Language Cognition & Neuroscience, 31 (1), 32–59.Google Scholar
Kuperman, V., Stadthagen-Gonzalez, H., & Brysbaert, M. (2012). Age-of-acquisition ratings for 30 thousand English words. Behavior Research Methods, 44 (4), 978–990.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Landauer, T. K., & Dumais, S. T. (1997). A solution to Plato's problem: The latent semantic analysis theory of acquisition, induction, and representation of knowledge. Psychological Review, 104 (2), 211–240.Google Scholar
Mani, N., & Huettig, F. (2012). Prediction during language processing is a piece of cake—But only for skilled producers. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 38 (4), 843–847.Google Scholar
Martin, C. D., Thierry, G., Kuipers, J. R., Boutonnet, B., Foucart, A., & Costa, A. (2013). Bilinguals reading in their second language do not predict upcoming words as native readers do. Journal of Memory and Language, 69 (4), 574–588.Google Scholar
Mitsugi, S., & MacWhinney, B. (2016). The use of case marking for predictive processing in second language Japanese. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 19 (1), 19–35.Google Scholar
Nation, K., Marshall, C. M., & Altmann, G. T. M. (2003). Investigating individual differences in children's real-time sentence comprehension using language-mediated eye movements. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 86 (4), 314–329.Google Scholar
Otten, M., & Van Berkum, J. J. A. (2008). Discourse-based word anticipation during language processing: Prediction or priming? Discourse Processes, 45 (6), 464–496.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pickering, M. J., & Garrod, S. (2007). Do people use language production to make predictions during comprehension? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11 (3), 105–110.Google Scholar
Pickering, M. J., & Garrod, S. (2013). An integrated theory of language production and comprehension. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 36, 329–392.Google Scholar
Development Core Team, R. (2015). A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. URL https://www.R-project.org/.Google Scholar
Saslow, M. G. (1967). Latency of saccadic eye movement. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 57 (8), 1030–1033.Google Scholar
Segalowitz, N., & Hulstijn, J. H. (2009). Automaticity in bilingualism and second language learning. In Kroll, J. F. & De Groot, A. M. B. (Eds.), Handbook of Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Approaches (pp. 371–388). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Slevc, L. R., & Novick, J. M. (2013). Memory and cognitive control in an integrated theory of language processing. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 36 (4), 373–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tanenhaus, M. K., Magnuson, J. S., Dahan, D., & Chambers, C. (2000). Eye movements and lexical access in spoken-language comprehension: Evaluating a linking hypothesis between fixations and linguistic processing. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 29 (6), 557–580.Google Scholar
Van Overschelde, J. P., Rawson, K. A., & Dunlosky, J. (2004). Category norms: An updated and expanded version of the Battig and Montague (1969) norms. Journal of Memory and Language, 50 (3), 289–335.Google Scholar
Yee, E., & Sedivy, J. C. (2006). Eye movements to pictures reveal transient semantic activation during spoken word recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 32 (1), 1–14.Google Scholar