Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T09:40:35.390Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Methodological Issues in Longitudinal Research on Cognitive Recovery after Traumatic Brain Injury: Evidence from a Systematic Review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 September 2013

Regina Schultz  and
Robyn L. Tate
Regina Schultz*
Affiliation:
Rehabilitation Studies Unit, Northern Clinical School, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Australia
Robyn L. Tate
Affiliation:
Rehabilitation Studies Unit, Northern Clinical School, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Australia Royal Rehabilitation Centre Sydney, Australia
*
Address for correspondence: Regina Schultz, Rehabilitation Studies Unit, University of Sydney, PO Box 6, Ryde, NSW 1680, Australia. E-mail: reginas@med.usyd.edu.au
Get access

Abstract

Background: Previous research addressing cognitive recovery after traumatic brain injury (TBI) in adults has predominately used cross-sectional methods. This systematic review examines longitudinal research into cognitive recovery in the first 2 years following moderate-to-severe TBI in adults and aims to identify apparent methodological issues with the existing literature.

Design: Systematic review of the first 2 years post-trauma.

Setting: Data were extracted from three electronic databases and manual searches of published articles until October 2012.

Participants: Two hundred and forty-two participants with severe TBI and 281 comparison participants were used to calculate effect sizes.

Results: Twenty papers met the selection criteria, with effect sizes computed from four studies. Moderate-to-large effect sizes were initially observed between the TBI and comparison groups on most measures (range: d = 0.2–2.8). Recovery continued in all five cognitive domains over the 2 years post-injury.

Conclusions: Results demonstrated that cognitive recovery was continuous throughout the first 2 years following moderate-to-severe TBI. Findings also indicated different rates of recovery for the specific cognitive domains, highlighting the heterogeneous nature of cognitive recovery after TBI. The review highlighted several methodological issues within the limited existing literature; recommendations were developed to improve the evidence base.

Keywords

traumatic brain injurycognitionneurorehabilitationrecovery of functionlongitudinal studies
Type
Systematic Review
Information
Brain Impairment , Volume 14 , Issue 3 , December 2013 , pp. 450 - 474
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Australian Academic Press Pty Ltd 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Al-Khindi, T., Zakzanis, K.K., & van Gorp, W.G. (2011). Does antiretroviral therapy improve HIV-associated cognitive impairment? A quantitative review of the literature. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17, 956–969.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andrewes, D.G. (2001). Neuropsychology: From theory to practice. New York, NY: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Axelrod, B.N., Fichtenberg, N.L., Liethen, P.C., Czarnota, M.A., & Stucky, K. (2001). Performance characteristics of postacute traumatic brain injury patients on the WAIS-III and WMS-III. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 15 (4), 516–520.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bagiella, E., Novack, T.A., Ansel, B., Diaz-Arrastia, R., Dikmen, S., Hart, T., & Temkin, N. (2010). Measuring outcome in traumatic brain injury treatment trials: Recommendations from the traumatic brain injury clinical trials network. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 25 (5), 375–382.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Bercaw, E.L., Hanks, R.A., Millis, S.R., & Thomas, J. (2011). Changes in neuropsychological performance after traumatic brain injury from inpatient rehabilitation to 1-year follow-up in predicting 2-year functional outcomes. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 25 (1), 72–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bigler, E.D. (2007). A motion to exclude and the ‘fixed’ versus ‘flexible’ battery in ‘forensic’ neuropsychology: Challenges to the practice of clinical neuropsychology. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22, 45–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bigler, E.D. (2008). Response to Russel's (2007) and Hom's (2008) Commentary on “A motion to exclude and the ‘fixed’ versus ‘flexible’ battery in ‘forensic’ neuropsychology”. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 23, 755–761.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bond, M.R. (1975). Assessment of the psychosocial outcome after severe head injury. Ciba Foundation Symposium, 34, 141–157.Google Scholar
Bond, M.R. (1976). Assessment of the psychosocial outcome of severe head injury. Acta Neurochirurgica, 34, 57–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Brooks, D.N., & Aughton, M.E. (1979). Cognitive recovery during the first year after severe blunt head injury. International Rehabilitation Medicine, 1 (4), 166–172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Christensen, B.K., Colella, B., Inness, E., Hebert, D., Monette, G., Bayley, M., & Green, R.E. (2008). Recovery of cognitive function after traumatic brain injury: a multilevel modeling analysis of Canadian outcomes. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 89 (12 Suppl. 2), S3–S15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chu, B.-C., Millis, S., Arango-Lasprilla, J.C., Hanks, R., Novack, T., & Hart, T. (2007). Measuring recovery in new learning and memory following traumatic brain injury: A mixed-effects modeling approach. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 29 (6), 617–625.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioural sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Dikmen, S., Machamer, J., Temkin, N., & McLean, A. (1990). Neuropsychological recovery in patients with moderate to severe head injury: 2 year follow-up. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 12 (4), 507–519.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
*Dikmen, S., Machamer, J.E., Winn, H., & Temkin, N.R. (1995). Neuropsychological outcome at 1-year post head injury. Neuropsychology, 9 (1), 80–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dikmen, S., Reitan, R.M., & Temkin, N.R. (1983). Neuropsychological recovery in head injury. Archives of Neurology, 40 (6), 333–338.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Draper, K., & Ponsford, J. (2008). Cognitive functioning ten years following traumatic brain injury and rehabilitation. Neuropsychology, 22 (5), 618–625.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Eker, C., Hagstadius, S., Linden, A., Schalen, W., & Nordstrom, C.H. (2001). Neuropsychological assessments in relation to CBF after severe head injuries. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 104 (3), 142–147.Google ScholarPubMed
Engberg, A., & Teasdale, T. (2004). Psychosocial outcome following traumatic brain injury in adults: A long-term population-based follow-up. Brain Injury, 18 (6), 533–545.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gershon, R.C., Cella, D., Fox, N.A., Havlik, R.J., Hendrie, H.C., & Wagster, M.V. (2010). Assessment of neurological and behavioural function: the NIH Toolbox. The Lancet Neurology, 9 (2), 138–139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Golden, C.J., Purisch, A.D., & Hammeke, T.A. (1991). Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery: Forms I and II. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.Google Scholar
Green, R.E., Colella, B., Christensen, B., Johns, K., Frasca, D., Bayley, M., & Monette, G. (2008a). Examining moderators of cognitive recovery trajectories after moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 89 (12 Suppl. 2), S16–S24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Green, R.E., Colella, B., Hebert, D.A., Bayley, M., Kang, H.S., Till, C., & Monette, G. (2008b). Prediction of return to productivity after severe traumatic brain injury: Investigations of optimal neuropsychological tests and timing of assessments. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 89 (12 Suppl. 2), S51–S60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
*Groher, M. (1977). Language and memory disorders following closed head trauma. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 20 (2), 212–223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammond, F.M., Grattan, K.D., Sasser, H., Corrigan, J.D., Bushnik, T., & Zafonte, R.D. (2001). Long-term recovery course after traumatic brain injury: A comparison of the Functional Independence Measure and Disability Rating Scale. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 16 (4), 318–329.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haut, M.W., Petros, T.V., & Frank, R.G. (1991). Semantic sensitivity in the acute phase of recovery from moderate and severe closed head injury. Neuropsychology, 5 (2), 81–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
*Hellawell, D.J., Taylor, R., & Pentland, B. (1999). Cognitive and psychosocial outcome following moderate or severe traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 13 (7), 489–504.Google ScholarPubMed
Hom, J. (2008). Response to Bigler (2007): The sky is not falling. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 23, 125–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jennett, B., & Teasdale, G. (1981). Management of head injuries. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Co.Google Scholar
Katz, D.I. (1992). Neuropathology and neurobehavioral recovery from closed head injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 7 (2), 1–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
*Lannoo, E., Colardyn, F., Jannes, C., & De Soete, G. (2001). Course of neuropsychological recovery from moderate-to-severe head injury: a 2-year follow-up. Brain Injury, 15 (1), 1–13.Google ScholarPubMed
Larrabee, G.L. (2008). Flexible vs. fixed batteries in forensic neuropsychological assessment: Response to Bigler and Hom. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 23, 763–776.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
*Lezak, M.D. (1979). Recovery of memory and learning functions following traumatic brain injury. Cortex, 15 (1), 63–72.Google ScholarPubMed
Lezak, M.D., Howieson, D.B., & Loring, D.W. (2004). Neuropsychological assessment (4th ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Liberati, A., Altman, D.G., Tetzlaff, J., Mulrow, C., Gøtzsche, P.C., Ioannidis, J.P.A., . . . Moher, D. (2009). The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: explanation and elaboration. PLoS Medicine, 6 (7), e1000100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Lindén, A., Boschian, K., Eker, C., Schalen, W., & Nordstrom, C.-H. (2005). Assessment of motor and process skills reflects brain-injured patients’ ability to resume independent living better than neuropsychological tests. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 111 (1), 48–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mandleberg, I.A. (1975). Cognitive recovery after severe head injury: II. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale during post-traumatic amnesia. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 38 (11), 1127–1132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mandleberg, I.A. (1976). Cognitive recovery after severe head injury: III. WAIS verbal and performance IQs as a function of post-traumatic amnesia duration and time from injury. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 39 (10), 1001–1107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
*Mandleberg, I.A. & Brooks, D. (1975). Cognitive recovery after severe head injury: I. Serial testing on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 38 (11), 1121–1126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mathias, J.L., & Wheaton, P. (2007). Changes in attention and information-processing speed following severe traumatic brain injury: A meta-analytic review. Neuropsychology, 21 (2), 212–223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Novack, T.A., Alderson, A.L., Bush, B.A., Meythaler, J.M., & Canupp, K. (2000). Cognitive and functional recovery at 6 and 12 months post-TBI. Brain Injury, 14 (11), 987–996.Google ScholarPubMed
Olejnik, A., & Algina, J. (2000). Measures of effect size for comparative studies: Applications, interpretations, and limitations. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 241–286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Parker, S.A., & Serrats, A.F. (1976). Memory recovery after traumatic coma. Acta Neurochirurgica, 34 (1–4), 71–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Randoph, C. (1998). RBANS Manual. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
*Rawlings, D.B., & Crewe, N.M. (1992). Test–retest practice effects and test score changes of the WAIS-R in recovering traumatically brain-injured survivors. Clinical Neuropsychologist, 6 (4), 415–430.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reitan, R.M., & Wolfson, D. (1993). The Halstead–Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery: Theory, and clinical applications (2nd ed.). Tucson, AZ: Neuropsychology Press.Google Scholar
Russell, E.W. (2007). Commentary on “A motion to exclude and the ‘fixed’ versus ‘flexible’ battery in ‘forensic’ neuropsychology”. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22, 787–790.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruttan, L., Martin, K., Liu, A., Colella, B., & Green, R.E. (2008). Long-term cognitive outcome in moderate to severe traumatic brain injury: A meta-analysis examining timed and untimed tests at 1 and 4.5 or more years after injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 89 (Suppl. 2), S69–S76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanderson, S., Tatt, I.D., & Higgins, J.P.T. (2007). Tools for assessing quality and susceptibility to bias in observational studies in epidemiology: a systematic review and annotated bibliography. International Journal of Epidemiology, 36, 666–676.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmitter-Edgecombe, M., & Nissley, H.M. (2000). Effects of divided attention on automatic and controlled components of memory after severe closed-head injury. Neuropsychology, 14 (4), 559–569.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schretlen, D.J., & Shapiro, A.M. (2003). A quantitative review of the effects of traumatic brain injury on cognitive functioning. International Review of Psychiatry, 15 (4), 341–349.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shelton, C. (2004). Progression of memory/attention abilities post-traumatic brain injury. Journal of Cognitive Rehabilitation, 22 (1), 5–9.Google Scholar
Singer, J.D., & Willett, J.B. (2003). Applied longitudinal data analysis: Modelling change and event occurrence. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skandsen, T., FInnanger, T.G., Andersson, S., Lydersen, S., Brunner, J.F., & Vik, A. (2010). Cognitive Impairment 3 months after moderate and severe traumatic brain injury: A prospective follow-up study. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 91 (11), 1904–1913.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Spikman, J.M., Timmerman, M.E., van Zomeren, A.H., & Deelman, B.G. (1999). Recovery versus retest effects in attention after closed head injury. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 21 (5), 585–605.Google ScholarPubMed
Spikman, J.M., van Zomeren, A.H., & Deelman, B.G. (1996). Deficits of attention after closed-head injury: slowness only? Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 18 (5), 755–767.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Spitz, G., Ponsford, J.L., Rudzki, D., & Maller, J.J. (2012). Association between cognitive performance and functional outcome following traumatic brain injury: A longitudinal multilevel examination. Neuropsychology, 26 (5), 604–612.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, R.A., & White, T. (2003). Neuropsychological assessment battery: Administration, scoring, and interpretation manual. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar
Strauss, E., Sherman, E.M.S., & Spreen, O. (2006). A compendium of neuropsychological tests: Administration, norms, and commentary (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Stuss, D.T., & Buckle, L. (1992). Traumatic brain injury: Neuropsychological deficits and evaluation at different stages of recovery and in different pathologic subtypes. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 7 (2), 40–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
*Tabaddor, K., Mattis, S., & Zazula, T. (1984). Cognitive sequelae and recovery course after moderate and severe head injury. Neurosurgery, 14 (6), 701–708.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tate, R.L., Fenelon, B., Manning, M.L., & Hunter, M. (1991). Patterns of neuropsychological impairment after severe blunt head injury. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 179 (3), 117–126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Till, C., Colella, B., Verwegen, J., & Green, R.E. (2008). Postrecovery cognitive decline in adults with traumatic brain injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 89 (12 Suppl. 2), S25–S34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trexler, L.E., & Zappala, G. (1988). Neuropathological determinants of acquired attention disorders in traumatic brain injury. Brain and Cognition, 8 (3), 291–302.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Van Zomeren, A.H., & Deelman, B.G. (1978). Long-term recovery of visual reaction time after closed head injury. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 41 (5), 452–457.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Volbrecht, M.E., Meyers, J.E., & Kaster-Bundgaard, J. (2000). Neuropsychological outcome of head injury using a short battery. Archives of Clinical Neuro-psychology, 15 (3), 251–265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilde, E.A., Whiteneck, G.G., Bogner, J., Bushnik, T., Cifu, D.X., Dikmen, S., . . . von Steinbuechel, N. (2010). Recommendations for the use of common outcome measures in traumatic brain injury research. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 91 (11), 1650–1660.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Wong, P.P., Monette, G., & Weiner, N.I. (2001). Mathematical models of cognitive recovery. Brain Injury, 15 (6), 519–530.Google ScholarPubMed
*Ylioja, S., Hanks, R., Baird, A., & Millis, S. (2010). Are cognitive outcome and recovery different in civilian penetrating versus non-penetrating brain injuries? The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 24 (7), 1097–1112.Google ScholarPubMed
Zakzanis, K.K. (2001). Statistics to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth: Formulae, illustrative numerical examples, and heuristic interpretation of effect size analyses for neuropsychological researchers. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 16 (7), 653–667.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Zwaagstra, R., Schmidt, I., & Vanier, M. (1996). Recovery of speed of information processing in closed-head-injury patients. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 18 (3), 383–393.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed