Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-fscjk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T03:27:33.239Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Feeding Roman Silchester: Querns and Millstones in and around Roman Towns

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 May 2021

Ruth Shaffrey
Ruth Shaffrey*
Affiliation:
Oxford Archaeology ruth.shaffrey@oxfordarchaeology.com
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Querns and millstones were central to the Roman agricultural economy, but are still relatively poorly understood. Using an exceptionally detailed dataset from the Roman town of Silchester as its main case study, this paper explores the supply of querns and the supply of flour in Romano-British urban sites and their rural hinterlands. The first part of the paper focuses on the assemblage of 715 querns and millstones from Silchester as commodities in their own right. It describes the stone types used for querns in the region, how the use of these changed over time, within and outside the town, and how the supply of querns to the town differed to that of the hinterland. These patterns of exploitation are used to make inferences about social and economic behaviour. Querns and millstones are also evidence for the preparation of flour and can be used to help us understand food-supply mechanisms, especially when considered together with archaeobotanical evidence. Analysis of the querns and millstones from closely dated contexts demonstrates that use of hand-powered rotary querns peaked in the town during the latest Iron Age and earliest Roman period. The use of rotary querns decreased significantly thereafter until, by the third century, the use of hand-operated rotary querns within the town was probably confined to a very basic household level in a domestic setting. At the same time, during the second or third century, powered millstones were introduced, with the archaeobotanical evidence suggesting a mill at an out-of-town location. Analysis of querns and millstones from a 20 km hinterland around Silchester suggests that household-level grinding was common, but that centralised milling was operating at a very low level and only to the north-west of the town. It is suggested that some flour was produced at centralised locations further afield and brought into the town ready ground. Supplementary material is available online (https://doi.org/10.1017/S0068113X21000040) and comprises detailed information on the lithologies of the querns and millstones from Silchester (including photographs), publication details of the sites in the town's hinterland and a spreadsheet recording the material.

Keywords

economyagricultural supplyrotary quernmillstonecentralisationgrainflourlithologies
Type
Articles
Information
Britannia , Volume 52 , November 2021 , pp. 33 - 65
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allen, J.R.L. 2012: ‘A Rhenish Pompeian-style mill from early Roman Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum)’, Britannia 43, 260–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, J.R.L. 2015: ‘Exponential decline in the dispersal of stone artefacts in Roman Britain: further expressions of trade’, Oxford Journal of Archaeology 34.1, 97–108CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, J.R.L., and Fulford, M.G. 1997: ‘Objects of stone’, in M.G. Fulford, S. Rippon, J. Timby and B. Williams, ‘Silchester: excavations on the North Gate, on the North Walls, and in the Northern Suburbs 1999 and 1991–1993’, Britannia 28, 87–168CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alonso, N. 2019: ‘A first approach to women, tools and operational sequences in traditional manual cereal grinding’, Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 11.8, 4307–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alonso, N., and Frankel, R. 2017: ‘A survey of ancient grain milling systems in the Mediterranean’, in Buchsenschutz, O., Lepareux-Couturier, S. and Fronteau, G. (eds), Les meules du Néolithique à l’époque médiévale: technique, culture, diffusion, Suppléments à la Revue archéologique de l'Est 43, Dijon, 461–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, T., Scarrow, J.H., and Cambeses, A. 2014: ‘Continued characterisation of querns and quern quarries in southern Spain’, in Selsing, L. (ed.), Seen through a Millstone, Stavanger, 111–31Google Scholar
Anon. n.d.: Watermills on the Thames and Loddon, Wargrave, http://www.wargravehistory.org.uk/ (accessed February 2021)Google Scholar
Bedwin, M., and Bedwin, O. 1999: A Roman Malt House: Excavations at Stebbings Green, Essex, 1988, East Anglian Archaeology Occasional Paper 6, ChelmsfordGoogle Scholar
Beresford, G. 1974: ‘The medieval manor of Penhallam, Jacobstow, Cornwall’, Medieval Archaeology 18, 90–145CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Biddulph, E. 2011: ‘The development of Northfleet villa’, in Andrews, P., Biddulp, E., Hardy, A. and Brown, R., Settling the Ebbsfleet Valley: High Speed 1 Excavations at Springhead and Northfleet, Kent: The Late Iron Age, Roman, Saxon, and Medieval Landscape 1: The Sites, Oxford, 213–30Google Scholar
Birbeck, V. 1999: ‘Archaeological investigations on the A34 Newbury Bypass, Berkshire/Hampshire 1991–7’, Wessex Archaeology (no page numbers)Google Scholar
Bird, D. (ed.) 2017: Agriculture and Industry in South-Eastern Roman Britain, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Boon, G.C. 1958: ‘A Roman pastrycook's mould from Silchester’, The Antiquaries Journal 38.3–4, 237–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boon, G.C. 1974: Silchester: The Roman Town of Calleva, Newton AbbotGoogle Scholar
Bowman, A., and Wilson, A. 2013: ‘Introduction: quantifying Roman agriculture’, in Bowman, A. and Wilson, A. (eds), The Roman Agricultural Economy: Organisation, Investment, and Production, Oxford, 1–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Branigan, K. (ed.) 1977: Gatcombe Roman Villa: Excavation and Study of a Romano-British Villa 1967–76, British Archaeological Reports British Series 44, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Brindle, T. 2017: ‘Milling and grinding’, in M. Allen, L. Lodwick, T. Brindle, M. Fulford and A. Smith, The Rural Economy of Roman Britain, Britannia Monograph 30, London, 71–7Google Scholar
Brindle, T., and Lodwick, L. 2017: ‘Textile production’, in M. Allen, L. Lodwick, T. Brindle, M. Fulford and A. Smith, The Rural Economy of Roman Britain, Britannia Monograph 30, London, 221–30Google Scholar
Bryan, A. n.d: Mills Research Group Database, Reading, https://catalogue.millsarchive.org/longbridge-mill-sherfield-on-loddon (accessed February 2021)Google Scholar
Buckley, D. 2001: ‘Querns and millstones’, in Anderson, A.S., Wacher, J.S. and Fitzpatrick, A.P., The Romano-British ‘Small Town’ at Wanborough, Wiltshire, Britannia Monograph 19, London, 156–60Google Scholar
Campbell, G. 2008: ‘Charred plant remains’, in Cunliffe and Poole 2008, 161–3Google Scholar
Campbell, G. 2017: ‘Market forces: a discussion of crop husbandry, horticulture and trade in plant resources in southern England’, in Bird, D. (ed.), Agriculture and Industry in South-Eastern Roman Britain, Oxford, 134–55Google Scholar
Cocks, A.H. 1921: ‘A Romano-British homestead in the Hambleden valley’, Archaeologia 71, 141–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corran, H.S. 1975: A History of Brewing, LondonGoogle Scholar
Craddock, P.T. 1995: Early Metal Mining and Production, WashingtonGoogle Scholar
Creighton, J. 2016: Silchester: Changing Visions of a Roman Town: Integrating Geophysics and Archaeology: The Results of the Silchester Mapping Project, 2005–10, Britannia Monograph 28, London,Google Scholar
Crouch, K. 1976: ‘The archaeology of Staines and the excavation of Elmsleigh House’, Transactions of the London and Middlesex Archaeological Society 27, 71–134Google Scholar
Cruse, J., and Heslop, D. 2015: Querns and Millstones at Heslington East, unpub. report, University of York, Archaeology DepartmentGoogle Scholar
Cunliffe, B. 2012: ‘Calleva in context’, in M.G. Fulford (ed.), Silchester and the Study of Romano-British Urbanism, Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 90, London, 14–22Google Scholar
Cunliffe, B., and Poole, C. 2008: The Danebury Environs Roman Programme: A Wessex Landscape during the Roman Era 2.3: Fullerton, Hants 2000 and 2001, Oxford University School of Archaeology Monograph 71, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Dineley, M. 2006: ‘The use of spent grain as cattle feed in the Neolithic’, in Serjeantson, D. and Field, D. (eds), Animals in the Neolithic of Britain and Europe, Neolithic Studies Group Seminar Paper 7, Oxford, 56–63Google Scholar
Ditchfield, P.H., and Page, W. 1923: A History of the County of Berkshire 3, LondonGoogle Scholar
Durham, E. 2018: ‘The querns’, in Fulford et al. 2018, 228–32Google Scholar
Eckardt, H. 2012: ‘Foreigners and locals in Calleva’, in M.G. Fulford (ed.), Silchester and the Study of Romano-British Urbanism, Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 90, London, 246–57Google Scholar
Ertuğ, F. 2000: ‘Linseed oil and oil mills in central Turkey: flax/Linum and Eruca, important oil plants in Anatolia’, Anatolian Studies 50, 171–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, C., Appleby, G., Lucy, S., and Regan, R. 2013: The Archaeology of the Lower Ouse Valley 2: Process and History: Romano-British Communities at Colne Fen, Earith: An Inland Port and Supply Farm, CambridgeGoogle Scholar
Eyers, J.E. 2011: Romans in the Hambleden Valley: Yewden Roman Villa, Chiltern Archaeology Monograph 1, High WycombeGoogle Scholar
Firth, E. 2011: Excavations at East Anton, Andover, Hampshire, unpub. report, AC Archaeology Archaeological Assessment Report ACW209/1/0, SalisburyGoogle Scholar
Fitzpatrick, A.P., Butterworth, C.A., and Grove, J. 1999: Prehistoric and Roman Sites in East Devon: The A30 Honiton to Exeter Improvement DBFO, 1996–9, Wessex Archaeology Report 16, SalisburyGoogle Scholar
Fox, G.E. 1895: ‘Excavations on the site of the Roman city at Silchester, Hants, in 1894’, Archaeologia 54, 439–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fulford, M.G. 1984: Silchester: Excavations on the Defences 1974–80, Britannia Monograph 5, LondonGoogle Scholar
Fulford, M.G. 1989: The Silchester Amphitheatre: Excavations of 1979–1985, LondonGoogle Scholar
Fulford, M. 2011: ‘The Silchester hinterland: introduction’, in Preston, S. (ed.), Archaeological Investigations in the Silchester Hinterland, Thames Valley Archaeological Services Monograph 9, Reading, 1–4Google Scholar
Fulford, M.G. 2018: ‘Concluding discussion’ in Fulford et al. 2018, 363–81Google Scholar
Fulford, M., Barnett, C., and Clarke, A. n.d.: Silchester and its Environs: Excavation and Survey 2015, unpub. report, University of ReadingCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fulford, M., Barnett, C., and Clarke, A. n.d.: Silchester and its Environs: Excavation and Survey 2016, unpub. report, University of ReadingGoogle Scholar
Fulford, M., Barnett, C., Pankhurst, N., and Wheeler, D. n.d.: Silchester and its Environs: Excavation and Survey 2017, unpub. report, University of ReadingGoogle Scholar
Fulford, M., and Clarke, A. 2002: ‘Victorian excavation methodology: the Society of Antiquaries at Silchester in 1893’, The Antiquaries Journal 82, 285–306CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fulford, M., and Clarke, A. 2011: Silchester: City in Transition: The Mid-Roman Occupation of Insula IX c. A.D. 125–250/300: A Report on Excavations Undertaken Since 1997, Britannia Monograph 25, LondonGoogle Scholar
Fulford, M., Clarke, A., Durham, E., and Pankhurst, N. 2018: Late Iron Age Calleva: The Pre-Conquest Occupation at Silchester Insula IX, Britannia Monograph 32, LondonGoogle Scholar
Fulford, M., Clarke, A., Durham, E., Pankhurst, N. 2020: Silchester Insula IX: The Claudio-Neronian Occupation of the Iron Age Oppidum, Britannia Monograph 33, LondonGoogle Scholar
Fulford, M., Clarke, A., and Eckardt, H. 2006: Life and Labour in Late Roman Silchester: Excavations in Insula IX Since 1997, Britannia Monograph 22, LondonGoogle Scholar
Fulford, M., Clarke, A., Lambert-Gates, S., Eaton, J., and Durham, E. n.d.: Silchester Insula XXX: Temple Excavation 2017, unpub. report, University of ReadingGoogle Scholar
Fulford, M., Clarke, A., Pankhurst, N., and Lambert-Gates, S. n.d.: Silchester: The ‘Town Life’ Project 2014, unpub. report, University of ReadingGoogle Scholar
Fulford, M., Pankhurst, N., Wheeler, D., and Machin, S. n.d.: The Silchester Environs Project: The Roman Tilery and Pottery Industry at Little London, Pamber 2017, unpub. report, University of ReadingGoogle Scholar
Fulford, M., and Timby, J. 2000: Late Iron Age and Roman Silchester: Excavations on the Site of the Forum-Basilica, 1977, 1980–86, Britannia Monograph 15, LondonGoogle Scholar
Goodman, P. 2016: ‘Working together: clusters of artisans in the Roman city’, in Wilson, A. and Flohr, M. (eds), Urban Craftsmen and Traders in the Roman World, Oxford, 301–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayward, K. 2009: ‘Worked stone’, in J. Wright, A. Powell and A. Barclay, Excavation of Prehistoric and Romano-British Sites at Marnel Park and Merton Rise (Popley) Basingstoke, 2004–8: Specialist Reports, Salisbury, 37–41Google Scholar
Hayward, K. 2013: ‘Worked stone’, in Wakeham, G. and Bradley, P., A Romano-British Malt House and Other Remains at Weedon Hill, Records of Bucks 53, Aylesbury, 1–45Google Scholar
Heslop, D.H. 2008: Patterns of Quern Production, Acquisition and Deposition: A Corpus of Beehive Querns from Northern Yorkshire and Southern Durham, Yorkshire Archaeological Society Occasional Paper 5, LeedsGoogle Scholar
Holt, R. 1988: The Mills of Medieval England, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Hope, St John W.H., and Fox, G.E. 1898: ‘Excavations on the site of the Roman city at Silchester, Hants, in 1897’, Archaeologia 56, 1–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnston, J. 1985: ‘Excavations at Pingewood’, Berkshire Archaeological Journal 72, 17–53Google Scholar
Jones, B., and Mattingley, B. 1990: An Atlas of Roman Britain, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Jones, M. 2000: ‘The plant remains’, in Fulford and Timby 2000, 505–12Google Scholar
Jones, P. 2010: The Roman and Medieval Town of Staines, WokingGoogle Scholar
King, D. 1980: ‘Petrology, dating and distribution of querns and millstones: the results of research in Bedfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Hertfordshire and Middlesex’, University of London Institute of Archaeology Bulletin 23, 65–126Google Scholar
Langdon, J. 2004: Mills in the Medieval Economy: England 1300–1540, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leveau, P. 2007: ‘Les moulins de Barbegal 1986–2006’, in Brun, J.-P. and Fiches, J.-L. (eds), Force hydraulique et machines à eau dans l'Antiquité romaine, Naples, 185–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lodwick, L. 2014: An Archaeobotanical Analysis of Silchester and the Wider Region Across the Late Iron Age–Roman Transition, unpub. PhD thesis, University of OxfordGoogle Scholar
Lodwick, L. 2017a: ‘Arable farming, plant foods, and resources’, in Allen, M., Lodwick, L., Brindle, T., Fulford, M. and Smith, A., The Rural Economy of Roman Britain, Britannia Monograph 30, London, 11–84Google Scholar
Lodwick, L. 2017b: ‘Agricultural innovations at a Late Iron Age oppidum: archaeobotanical evidence for flax, food and fodder from Calleva Atrebatum’, Quaternary International 460, 198–219CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lodwick, L.A. 2018: ‘The charred and waterlogged plant remains’, Fulford et al. 2018, 284–313Google Scholar
Manning, W.H. 1964: A mill-pivot from Silchester, The Antiquaries Journal 44, 38–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Medlycott, M. 1996: ‘A medieval farm and its landscape: excavations at Stebbingford, Felsted 1993’, Essex Archaeology and History 27, 102–81Google Scholar
Millett, M. 1990: The Romanization of Britain: An Essay in Archaeological Interpretation, CambridgeGoogle Scholar
Monteix, N. 2016: ‘Contexualising the operational sequence: Pompeian bakeries as a case study’, in Wilson, A. and Flohr, M. (eds), Urban Craftsmen and Traders in the Roman World, Oxford, 153–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moody, G.A. 2008: The Isle of Thanet: From Prehistory to the Norman Conquest, StroudGoogle Scholar
Moore, J., and Jennings, D. 1992: Reading Business Park: A Bronze Age Landscape, Thames Valley Landscapes Monograph 1, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Nixon-Darcus, L. 2014: The Cultural Context of Food Grinding Equipment in Northern Ethiopia: An Ethnoarchaeological Approach, unpub. M.A. thesis, Simon Fraser University, BurnabyGoogle Scholar
Perring, D., and Pitts, M. 2013: Alien Cities: Consumption and the Origins of Urbanism in Roman Britain, SpoilHeap Monograph 7, PortsladeGoogle Scholar
Powell, A.B., Jones, G.P., and Mepham, L. 2008: ‘An Iron Age and Romano-British settlement at Cleveland Farm, Ashton Keynes, Wiltshire’, Wiltshire Archaeology and Natural History Magazine 101, 18–50Google Scholar
Rees, S. 2011: ‘Agriculture’, in Allason-Jones, L. (ed.), Artefacts in Roman Britain: Their Purpose and Use, Cambridge, 89–113Google Scholar
Rippon, S. 2018: Kingdom, Civitas, and County: The Evolution of Territorial Identity in the English Landscape, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rivet, A.L.F. 1964: Town and Country in Roman Britain, LondonGoogle Scholar
Roberts, W.H. 1847: The Scottish Ale-Brewer and Practical Maltster: A Comprehensive Digest of the Art of Brewing Ales According to the Scottish System, EdinburghGoogle Scholar
Robinson, M. 2006: ‘The microscopic plant remains’, in Fulford et al. 2006, 206–16Google Scholar
Robinson, M. 2011: ‘The macroscopic plant and invertebrate remains’, in Fulford and Clarke 2011, 281–93Google Scholar
Shaffrey, R. 1997: ‘Quernstones from Ashton Keynes’, Quern Study Group Newsletter 4, 4Google Scholar
Shaffrey, R. 2003: ‘The rotary querns from the Society of Antiquaries’ excavations at Silchester, 1890–1909’, Britannia 34, 143–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaffrey, R. 2006: Grinding and Milling: Romano-British Rotary Querns made from Old Red Sandstone, British Archaeological Reports British Series 409, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaffrey, R. 2008: ‘The millstones’, in Cunliffe and Poole 2008, 124–30Google Scholar
Shaffrey, R. 2011: ‘Worked stone’ in E. Biddulph, R. Seager Smith and J. Schuster, Settling the Ebbsfleet Valley: High Speed 1 Excavations at Springhead and Northfleet, Kent: The Late Iron Age, Roman, Saxon, and Medieval Landscape 2: Late Iron Age to Roman Finds Reports, Oxford, 363–77Google Scholar
Shaffrey, R. 2015a: ‘Intensive milling practices in the Romano-British landscape of southern England: using newly established criteria for distinguishing millstones from rotary querns’, Britannia 46, 55–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaffrey, R. 2015b: ‘Worked stone (except flint)’, in P. Andrews, P. Booth, A.P. Fitzpatrick and K. Welsh, Digging at the Gateway: Archaeological Landscapes of South Thanet: The Archaeology of East Kent Access (Phase II) 2: The Finds, Environmental and Dating Specialist Reports, Oxford Wessex Archaeology Monograph 8, Oxford, 135–49Google Scholar
Shaffrey, R. 2016: ‘High Wood finds reports: querns and millstones’, South Oxfordshire Archaeology Group Bulletin 70, 33–4Google Scholar
Shaffrey, R. 2017: ‘Roman Ewell: a review of the querns and millstones and implications for understanding the organisation of grain processing’, Surrey Archaeological Society Collections 100, 259–69Google Scholar
Shaffrey, R. 2018: ‘Grain processing in and around Roman Cirencester. What can the querns and millstones tell us about supply to the Roman town?’, Transactions of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological Society 136, 171–80Google Scholar
Shaffrey, R. 2019: ‘A possible source for Iron Age rotary querns in the Upper Greensand Potterne rock of the Devizes area’, Wiltshire Archaeology and Natural History Magazine, 245–8Google Scholar
Shaffrey, R. 2021: ‘The querns and millstones of Roman Exeter: supplying and feeding the fortress and town’, in Rippon, S. and Holbrook, N. (eds), Exeter: A Place in Time 2: Studies in the Roman and Medieval Archaeology of Exeter, Oxford, 415–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaffrey, R., and Roe, F. 2011: ‘The widening use of Lodsworth stone: Neolithic to Romano-British quern distribution’, in Williams, D.F. and Peacock, D.P.S. (eds), Bread for the People: The Archaeology of Mills and Milling: Proceedings of a Colloquium Held in the British School at Rome 4th–7th November 2009, Oxford, 309–24Google Scholar
Smith, A., and Fulford, M. 2019: ‘The defended vici of Roman Britain: recent research and new agendas’, Britannia 50, 109–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spain, R., and Riddler, I. 2010: ‘The millstones’, in Bennett, P., Riddler, I. and Sparey-Green, C., The Roman Watermills and Settlement at Ickham, Kent, Archaeology of Canterbury New Series 5, Canterbury, 277–85Google Scholar
Stevens, C.J., Grimm, J.M., and Worley, F. 2011: ‘Agriculture, food and drink’, in Andrews, P., Biddulp, E., Hardy, A. and Brown, R., Settling the Ebbsfleet Valley: High Speed 1 Excavations at Springhead and Northfleet, Kent: The Late Iron Age, Roman, Saxon, and Medieval Landscape 1: The Sites, Oxford, 236–43Google Scholar
Sutton, A. 2020: ‘Resistance is futile? Ceramic technology and social change in later Iron Age and early Roman Britain: Silchester Ware as a case study’, Britannia 51, 53–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tester, C. 2004: ‘Querns and millstones’, in Bales, E., A Roman Maltings at Beck Row, Mildenhall, Suffolk, East Anglian Archaeology Occasional Paper 20, Ipswich, 43–4Google Scholar
Timby, J. 2012: ‘The language of pots: an overview of pottery supply to Silchester and its hinterland’, in Fulford, M. (ed.), Silchester and the Study of Romano-British Urbanism, Portsmouth RI, 127–50Google Scholar
Tomlin, R.S.O. 2016: Roman London's First Voices: Writing Tablets from the Bloomberg Excavations, 2010–14, Museum of London Archaeology Monograph 72, LondonGoogle Scholar
Watts, S. 1996: ‘The rotary quern in Wales: part one’, Melin, Journal of the Welsh Mills Society 12, 26–35Google Scholar
Watts, S. 2014: The Life and Death of Querns: The Deposition and Use-Contexts of Querns in South-Western England from the Neolithic to the Iron Age, SouthamptonGoogle Scholar
Williams, D. 2003: ‘Worked stone’, in J. Pine, ‘The excavation of a late Iron Age/Roman settlement and iron production site at Whitehall Brick and Tile Works, Arborfield Garrison, Berkshire’, Berkshire Archaeological Journal 76, 37–67Google Scholar
Williams, D.F., and Peacock, D.P.S. 2011: ‘Pompeian style mills in Britain’, in Williams, D.F. and Peacock, D.P.S. (eds), Bread for the People: The Archaeology of Mills and Milling: Proceedings of a Colloquium Held in the British School at Rome 4th–7th November 2009, Oxford, 117–23Google Scholar
Wilson, A. 2000: ‘The water-mills on the Janiculum’, Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 45, 219–46CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wooders, J. 2000: ‘The stone artefacts’, in Fulford and Timby 2000, 385–91Google Scholar
Supplementary material: PDF

Shaffrey supplementary material

Shaffrey supplementary material 1

Download Shaffrey supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 861.2 KB
Supplementary material: File

Shaffrey supplementary material

Shaffrey supplementary material 2

Download Shaffrey supplementary material(File)
File 29.5 KB