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Hadrian's Frontiers in Northern Britain

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 September 2022

Paul Bidwell
Paul Bidwell*
Affiliation:
North Shields, Tyne and Wear bidwepa@aol.com
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Abstract

The structural relationships of the forts, Wall curtain and Vallum are reviewed and a revised sequence of construction for Hadrian's Wall is proposed. The original plan (Stage 1) incorporated much of the earlier Trajanic frontier (the Stanegate) and probably included the Devil's Causeway which ran north-eastwards from Corbridge. Forts were then added to the line of the Wall as a result of three modifications of the plan (Stages 2–4), continuing until late in Hadrian's reign. The Vallum was added in Stage 3. Hadrian probably conceived the original plan for the Wall, but the modifications that followed seem to have been consequences of shifting focuses of loyalty, resistance and outright warfare, beyond and behind the frontier.

Keywords

Devil's CausewayfortsHadrianHadrian's WallinscriptionspotteryStanegateVallum
Type
Articles
Information
Britannia , Volume 53 , November 2022 , pp. 99 - 124
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies

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References

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Tomlin, R.S.O., Wright, R.P. and Hassall, M.W.C., 2009: The Roman Inscriptions of Britain. III, Inscriptions on Stone, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Austen, P.S. 1991: Bewcastle and Old Penrith. A Roman Outpost Fort and a Frontier Vicus: Excavations, 1977–78, Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society Research Series 6, KendalGoogle Scholar
Austen, P. 2008 ‘Some problems of projecting forts on Hadrian's Wall’, in Bidwell, P. (ed.), Understanding Hadrian's Wall, South Shields, 113–18Google Scholar
Bellhouse, R.L. 1952: ‘A newly-discovered Roman road from Drumburgh to Kirkbride’, Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society 2nd series 52, 41–5Google Scholar
Bellhouse, R.L. 1989: ‘Hadrian's Wall: the forts at Drumburgh’, Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society 2nd series 89, 33–6Google Scholar
Bellhouse, R.L., and Richardson, G.G.S. 1982: ‘The Trajanic fort at Kirkbride; the terminus of the Stanegate frontier’, Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society 2nd series 82, 35–50Google Scholar
Bidwell, P. 2018: Hadrian's Wall at Wallsend, Arbeia Society Roman Archaeological Studies 1, South ShieldsGoogle Scholar
Bidwell, P. 2021: ‘Hadrian's Wall at Chesters and Great Chesters: a reassessment’, Archaeologia Aeliana 5th series 50, forthcomingGoogle Scholar
Bidwell, P., and Holbrook, N. 1989: Hadrian's Wall Bridges, English Heritage Archaeological Report 9, LondonGoogle Scholar
Bidwell, P.T. and Snape, M.E. 2002: ‘The history and setting of the Roman fort at Newcastle upon Tyne’, Archaeologia Aeliana 5th series 31, 251–83Google Scholar
Bidwell, P. and Watson, M. 1996: ‘Excavations on Hadrian's Wall at Denton, Newcastle upon Tyne, 1986–89’, Archaeologia Aeliana 5th series 24, 1–56Google Scholar
Biggins, J.A., and Taylor, D.J.A. 2007: ‘The Roman fort at Castlesteads, Cumbria: a geophysical survey of the vicus’, Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society 2nd series 7, 15–30Google Scholar
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Birley, E. 1959–60: ‘Thomas Pennant and the Hoddam Castle Collection’, Transactions of the Dumfries and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society, 3rd series 38, 140–6Google Scholar
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Breeze, D.J. 1982: The Northern Frontiers of Roman Britain, LondonGoogle Scholar
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Breeze, D.J. 2006: J. Collingwood Bruce's Handbook to the Roman Wall (14th edn), Newcastle upon TyneGoogle Scholar
Breeze, D.J. 2009: ‘Did Hadrian design Hadrian's Wall?’, Archaeologia Aeliana 5th series 38, 87–103Google Scholar
Breeze, D.J. 2015: ‘The Vallum of Hadrian's Wall’, Archaeologia Aeliana 5th series 44, 1–29Google Scholar
Breeze, D.J. 2017: ‘The placing of the forts on Hadrian's Wall’, Archaeologia Aeliana 5th series 46, 21–39Google Scholar
Breeze, D.J. 2019: Hadrian's Wall. A Study in Archaeological Exploration and Interpretation, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Breeze, D.J. and Dobson, B. 2000: Hadrian's Wall (4th edn), HarmondsworthGoogle Scholar
Bruhn, J.D., and Hodgson, N. 2022: ‘The social and economic impact of Hadrian's Wall on the frontier zone in Britain’, Britannia 53, forthcomingCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clare, T. 2004: ‘Coastal change and the western end of Hadrian's Wall’, in Wilson and Caruana 2004, 39–51Google Scholar
Collingwood, R.G., and Myres, J.N.L. 1937: Roman Britain and the English Settlements (2nd edn), OxfordGoogle Scholar
Collins, R. 2018: ‘Roman Britain in 2017, England. 3. Hadrian's Wall’, Britannia 49, 342–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, R. 2019: ‘Roman Britain in 2018, England. 3. Hadrian's Wall’, Britannia 50, 416–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, R., and Symonds, M. 2019: Hadrian's Wall 2009–2019. A Summary of Excavation and Research Prepared for the Fourteenth Pilgrimage of Hadrian's Wall, KendalGoogle Scholar
Crow, J.G. 1991: ‘A review of recent research on the turrets and curtain of Hadrian's Wall’, Britannia 22, 51–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crow, J. 2004a: Housesteads. A Fort and Garrison on Hadrian's Wall (2nd edn), StroudGoogle Scholar
Crow, J. 2004b: ‘The northern frontier of Britain from Trajan to Antoninus Pius: Roman builders and native Britons’, in Todd, M. (ed.), A Companion to Roman Britain, Oxford, 114–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daniels, C. 1970: ‘Problems of the Roman northern frontier’, Scottish Archaeological Forum 1, 91–101Google Scholar
DeLaine, J. 2002: ‘The Temple of Hadrian at Cyzicus and Roman attitudes to exceptional construction’, Papers of the British School at Rome 70, 205–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gates, T., and Hewitt, R.J. 2007: ‘Some newly identified Roman temporary camps in Northumberland and their relation to the Devil's Causeway’, Archaeologia Aeliana 5th series 36, 11–30Google Scholar
Gillam, J.P. 1958: ‘Roman and native, A.D. 122–197’, in Richmond, I.A. (ed.), Roman and Native in North Britain, Edinburgh, 60–89Google Scholar
Graafstal, E.P., 2012: ‘Hadrian's haste: a priority programme for the Wall’, Archaeologia Aeliana 5th series 41, 123–84Google Scholar
Graafstal, E.P. 2021: ‘The original plan for Hadrian's Wall: a new purpose for Pons Aelius’, Archaeological Journal 178, 107–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanson, W.S. 2020: ‘The design of the Antonine Wall’, Britannia 51, 203–23Google Scholar
Hanson, W.S., and Breeze, D.J. 2020: ‘The Antonine Wall: the current state of knowledge’, in Breeze, D.J. and Hanson, W.S. (eds), The Antonine Wall. Papers In Honour of Professor Lawrence Keppie, Archaeopress Roman Archaeology 64, Oxford, 8–36Google Scholar
Hanson, W.S., and Maxwell, G. 1986: Rome's North West Frontier: The Antonine Wall, EdinburghGoogle Scholar
Haverfield, F. 1897: ‘Report of the Cumberland Excavation Committee, 1896’, Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society, 1st series 14, 413–33Google Scholar
Hodgson, N. 2000: ‘The Stanegate: a frontier rehabilitated’, Britannia 31, 11–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodgson, N. 2003: The Roman Fort at Wallsend (Segedunum). Excavations in 1997–8, Tyne and Wear Museums Archaeological Monograph 2, Newcastle upon TyneGoogle Scholar
Hodgson, N. 2017: Hadrian's Wall. Archaeology and History at the Limit of Rome's Empire, MarlboroughGoogle Scholar
Hodgson, N. 2021: ‘The end of the Ninth legion, war in Britain and the building of Hadrian's Wall’, Britannia 52, 97–118CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodgson, N., McKelvey, J., and Muncaster, W. 2012: The Iron Age on the Northumberland Coastal Plain. Excavations in Advance of Development 2002–2010, Tyne and Wear Archives and Museums Archaeological Monograph 3, Newcastle upon TyneGoogle Scholar
Jobey, G. 1982: ‘Between Tyne and Forth: some problems’, in Clack, P. and Haselgrove, S. (eds), Rural Settlement in the Roman North, Durham, 7–20Google Scholar
Keppie, L. 2004: The Legacy of Rome. Scotland's Roman Remains (3rd edn), EdinburghGoogle Scholar
Macdonald, G. 1934: The Roman Wall in Scotland (2nd edn), OxfordGoogle Scholar
Mattingly, D.J. 1994: Tripolitania, Ann Arbor, MIGoogle Scholar
McIntire, W.T. 1939: ‘The fords of the Solway’, Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society, 2nd series 39, 152–70Google Scholar
Miket, R. and Maxfield, V. 1972: ‘The excavation of turret 33B (Coesike)’, Archaeologia Aeliana 4th series 50, 145–78Google Scholar
Poulter, J. 2009: Surveying Roman Military Landscapes across Northern Britain, British Archaeological Reports British Series 492, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Poulter, J. 2014: Further Discoveries about the Surveying and Planning of Roman Roads in Northern Britain. A Sequel to BAR 492, British Archaeological Reports British Series 598, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ratledge, D. 2021: ‘The Western Stanegate Roman road. Carlisle to Kirkbride’, Roman Roads Research Association Newsletter 19, 4–8Google Scholar
Richmond, I.A. 1939: ‘Hadrian's Wall, 1938’, Archaeologia Aeliana 4th series 16, 264–77Google Scholar
Richmond, I.A. 1950: ‘Hadrian's Wall, 1939–1949’, Journal of Roman Studies 40, 43–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richmond, I.A. 1956: ‘Excavations at Milecastle 49 (Harrow's Scar), 1953’, Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society 2nd series 56, 18–27Google Scholar
Rushworth, A. 2009: Housesteads Roman Fort – The Grandest Station. Excavation and Survey at Housesteads, 1954–95, by Charles Daniels, John Gillam, James Crow and Others (2 vols) SwindonGoogle Scholar
Rushworth, A. 2017: ‘Soldiers or tribesmen: who guarded the frontiers of late Roman Africa?’, in Hodgson, N., Bidwell, P. and Schachtmann, J. (eds), Roman Frontier Studies 2009. Proceedings of the XXI International Congress of Frontier Studies (Limes Congress) held at Newcastle upon Tyne in August 2009, Archaeopress Roman Archaeology 25, Oxford, 151–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simpson, G. 1972: ‘Samian pottery and a Roman road at Corbridge’, Archaeologia Aeliana 4th series 50, 217–33Google Scholar
Simpson, F.G., and Richmond, I.A. 1952: ‘Report of the Cumberland Excavation Committee for 1947–1949. The Roman fort at Drumburgh’, Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society 2nd series 52, 9–16Google Scholar
Swinbank, B., and Spaul, J.E.H. 1951: ‘The spacing of forts on Hadrian's Wall’, Archaeologia Aeliana 4th series 29, 221–38Google Scholar
Symonds, M. 2020: ‘Fords and the frontier: waging counter-mobility on Hadrian's Wall’, Antiquity 94, 92–109CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Symonds, M. 2021: Hadrian's Wall. Creating Division, LondonCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, E. 2007: Monumentality and the Roman Empire. Architecture in the Antonine Age, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomlin, R.S.O., and Hassall, M.W.C. 1998: ‘Roman Britain in 1997. II. Inscriptions’, Britannia 29, 433–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ward-Perkins, J.B. 1981: Roman Imperial Architecture (2nd edn), HarmondsworthGoogle Scholar
Welfare, H. 2013: ‘A Roman camp, quarries, and the Vallum at Shield-on-the-Wall (Newbrough)’, Archaeologia Aeliana 5th series 42, 81–99Google Scholar
Wilson, R.J.A., and Caruana, I.D. (eds) 2004: Romans on the Solway: Essays In Honour of Richard Bellhouse, Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society Extra Series 31, KendalGoogle Scholar
Woolliscroft, D.J. 2009: ‘Excavations by G.D.B. Jones at two forts south of Burgh-by-Sands’, in Breeze, D.J. and Woolliscroft, D.J. (eds), Excavation and Survey at Roman Burgh-by-Sands, Cumbria Archaeological Research Report 1, 56–76Google Scholar
Woolliscroft, D.J., and Jones, G.D.B. 2004: ‘Excavations on the Cumberland coast at Silloth, and at Fingland Rigg, 1994’, in Wilson and Caruana 2004, 186–94Google Scholar
Collingwood, R.G. and Wright, R.P., 1965: The Roman Inscriptions of Britain. I, Inscriptions on Stone, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Tomlin, R.S.O., Wright, R.P. and Hassall, M.W.C., 2009: The Roman Inscriptions of Britain. III, Inscriptions on Stone, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Austen, P.S. 1991: Bewcastle and Old Penrith. A Roman Outpost Fort and a Frontier Vicus: Excavations, 1977–78, Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society Research Series 6, KendalGoogle Scholar
Austen, P. 2008 ‘Some problems of projecting forts on Hadrian's Wall’, in Bidwell, P. (ed.), Understanding Hadrian's Wall, South Shields, 113–18Google Scholar
Bellhouse, R.L. 1952: ‘A newly-discovered Roman road from Drumburgh to Kirkbride’, Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society 2nd series 52, 41–5Google Scholar
Bellhouse, R.L. 1989: ‘Hadrian's Wall: the forts at Drumburgh’, Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society 2nd series 89, 33–6Google Scholar
Bellhouse, R.L., and Richardson, G.G.S. 1982: ‘The Trajanic fort at Kirkbride; the terminus of the Stanegate frontier’, Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society 2nd series 82, 35–50Google Scholar
Bidwell, P. 2018: Hadrian's Wall at Wallsend, Arbeia Society Roman Archaeological Studies 1, South ShieldsGoogle Scholar
Bidwell, P. 2021: ‘Hadrian's Wall at Chesters and Great Chesters: a reassessment’, Archaeologia Aeliana 5th series 50, forthcomingGoogle Scholar
Bidwell, P., and Holbrook, N. 1989: Hadrian's Wall Bridges, English Heritage Archaeological Report 9, LondonGoogle Scholar
Bidwell, P.T. and Snape, M.E. 2002: ‘The history and setting of the Roman fort at Newcastle upon Tyne’, Archaeologia Aeliana 5th series 31, 251–83Google Scholar
Bidwell, P. and Watson, M. 1996: ‘Excavations on Hadrian's Wall at Denton, Newcastle upon Tyne, 1986–89’, Archaeologia Aeliana 5th series 24, 1–56Google Scholar
Biggins, J.A., and Taylor, D.J.A. 2007: ‘The Roman fort at Castlesteads, Cumbria: a geophysical survey of the vicus’, Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society 2nd series 7, 15–30Google Scholar
Birley, A.R. 2005: The Roman Government of Britain, Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birley, E. 1934–5: ‘Excavations per lineam valli in 1934’, Durham University Journal 29, 93–9Google Scholar
Birley, E. 1959–60: ‘Thomas Pennant and the Hoddam Castle Collection’, Transactions of the Dumfries and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society, 3rd series 38, 140–6Google Scholar
Birley, E. 1961: Research on Hadrian's Wall, KendalGoogle Scholar
Blake, B. 1955: The Solway Firth, LondonGoogle Scholar
Breeze, D.J. 1982: The Northern Frontiers of Roman Britain, LondonGoogle Scholar
Breeze, D.J. 2003: ‘Auxiliaries, legionaries, and the operation of Hadrian's Wall’, in Wilkes, J.J. (ed.), Documenting the Roman Army. Essays in Honour of Margaret Roxan, Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 81, London, 147–51Google Scholar
Breeze, D.J. 2004: ‘Roman military sites on the Cumbrian coast’, in Wilson and Caruana 2004, 66–94Google Scholar
Breeze, D.J. 2006: J. Collingwood Bruce's Handbook to the Roman Wall (14th edn), Newcastle upon TyneGoogle Scholar
Breeze, D.J. 2009: ‘Did Hadrian design Hadrian's Wall?’, Archaeologia Aeliana 5th series 38, 87–103Google Scholar
Breeze, D.J. 2015: ‘The Vallum of Hadrian's Wall’, Archaeologia Aeliana 5th series 44, 1–29Google Scholar
Breeze, D.J. 2017: ‘The placing of the forts on Hadrian's Wall’, Archaeologia Aeliana 5th series 46, 21–39Google Scholar
Breeze, D.J. 2019: Hadrian's Wall. A Study in Archaeological Exploration and Interpretation, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Breeze, D.J. and Dobson, B. 2000: Hadrian's Wall (4th edn), HarmondsworthGoogle Scholar
Bruhn, J.D., and Hodgson, N. 2022: ‘The social and economic impact of Hadrian's Wall on the frontier zone in Britain’, Britannia 53, forthcomingCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clare, T. 2004: ‘Coastal change and the western end of Hadrian's Wall’, in Wilson and Caruana 2004, 39–51Google Scholar
Collingwood, R.G., and Myres, J.N.L. 1937: Roman Britain and the English Settlements (2nd edn), OxfordGoogle Scholar
Collins, R. 2018: ‘Roman Britain in 2017, England. 3. Hadrian's Wall’, Britannia 49, 342–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, R. 2019: ‘Roman Britain in 2018, England. 3. Hadrian's Wall’, Britannia 50, 416–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, R., and Symonds, M. 2019: Hadrian's Wall 2009–2019. A Summary of Excavation and Research Prepared for the Fourteenth Pilgrimage of Hadrian's Wall, KendalGoogle Scholar
Crow, J.G. 1991: ‘A review of recent research on the turrets and curtain of Hadrian's Wall’, Britannia 22, 51–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crow, J. 2004a: Housesteads. A Fort and Garrison on Hadrian's Wall (2nd edn), StroudGoogle Scholar
Crow, J. 2004b: ‘The northern frontier of Britain from Trajan to Antoninus Pius: Roman builders and native Britons’, in Todd, M. (ed.), A Companion to Roman Britain, Oxford, 114–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daniels, C. 1970: ‘Problems of the Roman northern frontier’, Scottish Archaeological Forum 1, 91–101Google Scholar
DeLaine, J. 2002: ‘The Temple of Hadrian at Cyzicus and Roman attitudes to exceptional construction’, Papers of the British School at Rome 70, 205–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gates, T., and Hewitt, R.J. 2007: ‘Some newly identified Roman temporary camps in Northumberland and their relation to the Devil's Causeway’, Archaeologia Aeliana 5th series 36, 11–30Google Scholar
Gillam, J.P. 1958: ‘Roman and native, A.D. 122–197’, in Richmond, I.A. (ed.), Roman and Native in North Britain, Edinburgh, 60–89Google Scholar
Graafstal, E.P., 2012: ‘Hadrian's haste: a priority programme for the Wall’, Archaeologia Aeliana 5th series 41, 123–84Google Scholar
Graafstal, E.P. 2021: ‘The original plan for Hadrian's Wall: a new purpose for Pons Aelius’, Archaeological Journal 178, 107–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanson, W.S. 2020: ‘The design of the Antonine Wall’, Britannia 51, 203–23Google Scholar
Hanson, W.S., and Breeze, D.J. 2020: ‘The Antonine Wall: the current state of knowledge’, in Breeze, D.J. and Hanson, W.S. (eds), The Antonine Wall. Papers In Honour of Professor Lawrence Keppie, Archaeopress Roman Archaeology 64, Oxford, 8–36Google Scholar
Hanson, W.S., and Maxwell, G. 1986: Rome's North West Frontier: The Antonine Wall, EdinburghGoogle Scholar
Haverfield, F. 1897: ‘Report of the Cumberland Excavation Committee, 1896’, Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society, 1st series 14, 413–33Google Scholar
Hodgson, N. 2000: ‘The Stanegate: a frontier rehabilitated’, Britannia 31, 11–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodgson, N. 2003: The Roman Fort at Wallsend (Segedunum). Excavations in 1997–8, Tyne and Wear Museums Archaeological Monograph 2, Newcastle upon TyneGoogle Scholar
Hodgson, N. 2017: Hadrian's Wall. Archaeology and History at the Limit of Rome's Empire, MarlboroughGoogle Scholar
Hodgson, N. 2021: ‘The end of the Ninth legion, war in Britain and the building of Hadrian's Wall’, Britannia 52, 97–118CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodgson, N., McKelvey, J., and Muncaster, W. 2012: The Iron Age on the Northumberland Coastal Plain. Excavations in Advance of Development 2002–2010, Tyne and Wear Archives and Museums Archaeological Monograph 3, Newcastle upon TyneGoogle Scholar
Jobey, G. 1982: ‘Between Tyne and Forth: some problems’, in Clack, P. and Haselgrove, S. (eds), Rural Settlement in the Roman North, Durham, 7–20Google Scholar
Keppie, L. 2004: The Legacy of Rome. Scotland's Roman Remains (3rd edn), EdinburghGoogle Scholar
Macdonald, G. 1934: The Roman Wall in Scotland (2nd edn), OxfordGoogle Scholar
Mattingly, D.J. 1994: Tripolitania, Ann Arbor, MIGoogle Scholar
McIntire, W.T. 1939: ‘The fords of the Solway’, Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society, 2nd series 39, 152–70Google Scholar
Miket, R. and Maxfield, V. 1972: ‘The excavation of turret 33B (Coesike)’, Archaeologia Aeliana 4th series 50, 145–78Google Scholar
Poulter, J. 2009: Surveying Roman Military Landscapes across Northern Britain, British Archaeological Reports British Series 492, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Poulter, J. 2014: Further Discoveries about the Surveying and Planning of Roman Roads in Northern Britain. A Sequel to BAR 492, British Archaeological Reports British Series 598, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ratledge, D. 2021: ‘The Western Stanegate Roman road. Carlisle to Kirkbride’, Roman Roads Research Association Newsletter 19, 4–8Google Scholar
Richmond, I.A. 1939: ‘Hadrian's Wall, 1938’, Archaeologia Aeliana 4th series 16, 264–77Google Scholar
Richmond, I.A. 1950: ‘Hadrian's Wall, 1939–1949’, Journal of Roman Studies 40, 43–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richmond, I.A. 1956: ‘Excavations at Milecastle 49 (Harrow's Scar), 1953’, Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society 2nd series 56, 18–27Google Scholar
Rushworth, A. 2009: Housesteads Roman Fort – The Grandest Station. Excavation and Survey at Housesteads, 1954–95, by Charles Daniels, John Gillam, James Crow and Others (2 vols) SwindonGoogle Scholar
Rushworth, A. 2017: ‘Soldiers or tribesmen: who guarded the frontiers of late Roman Africa?’, in Hodgson, N., Bidwell, P. and Schachtmann, J. (eds), Roman Frontier Studies 2009. Proceedings of the XXI International Congress of Frontier Studies (Limes Congress) held at Newcastle upon Tyne in August 2009, Archaeopress Roman Archaeology 25, Oxford, 151–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simpson, G. 1972: ‘Samian pottery and a Roman road at Corbridge’, Archaeologia Aeliana 4th series 50, 217–33Google Scholar
Simpson, F.G., and Richmond, I.A. 1952: ‘Report of the Cumberland Excavation Committee for 1947–1949. The Roman fort at Drumburgh’, Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society 2nd series 52, 9–16Google Scholar
Swinbank, B., and Spaul, J.E.H. 1951: ‘The spacing of forts on Hadrian's Wall’, Archaeologia Aeliana 4th series 29, 221–38Google Scholar
Symonds, M. 2020: ‘Fords and the frontier: waging counter-mobility on Hadrian's Wall’, Antiquity 94, 92–109CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Symonds, M. 2021: Hadrian's Wall. Creating Division, LondonCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, E. 2007: Monumentality and the Roman Empire. Architecture in the Antonine Age, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomlin, R.S.O., and Hassall, M.W.C. 1998: ‘Roman Britain in 1997. II. Inscriptions’, Britannia 29, 433–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ward-Perkins, J.B. 1981: Roman Imperial Architecture (2nd edn), HarmondsworthGoogle Scholar
Welfare, H. 2013: ‘A Roman camp, quarries, and the Vallum at Shield-on-the-Wall (Newbrough)’, Archaeologia Aeliana 5th series 42, 81–99Google Scholar
Wilson, R.J.A., and Caruana, I.D. (eds) 2004: Romans on the Solway: Essays In Honour of Richard Bellhouse, Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society Extra Series 31, KendalGoogle Scholar
Woolliscroft, D.J. 2009: ‘Excavations by G.D.B. Jones at two forts south of Burgh-by-Sands’, in Breeze, D.J. and Woolliscroft, D.J. (eds), Excavation and Survey at Roman Burgh-by-Sands, Cumbria Archaeological Research Report 1, 56–76Google Scholar
Woolliscroft, D.J., and Jones, G.D.B. 2004: ‘Excavations on the Cumberland coast at Silloth, and at Fingland Rigg, 1994’, in Wilson and Caruana 2004, 186–94Google Scholar
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