Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-fscjk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T11:53:36.027Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Manufacturing nature: science, technology and Victorian consumer culture

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 January 2009

Iwan Rhys Morus
Affiliation:
Department of Social Anthropology, Queen's University, Belfast BT7 1NN.

Extract

The public place of science and technology in Britain underwent a dramatic change during the first half of the nineteenth century. At the end of the eighteenth century, natural philosophy was still on the whole the province of a relatively small group of aficionados. London possessed only one institution devoted to the pursuit of natural knowledge: the Royal Society. The Royal Society also published what was virtually the only journal dealing exclusively with scientific affairs: the Philosophical Transactions. By 1851, when the Great Exhibition opened its doors in Hyde Park to an audience of spectators that could be counted in the millions, the pursuit of science as a national need, its relationship to industrial progress were acceptable, if not uncontested facts for many commentators.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © British Society for the History of Science 1996

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 The literature on the culture of British science during the first half of the nineteenth century is now vast. The classic is Cannon, S., Science in Culture, New York, 1978.Google Scholar For an overview of some more recent literature see Morus, I. R., Schaffer, S. and Secord, J., ‘Scientific London’, in London: World City, 1800–1840 (ed. Fox, C.), New Haven, 1992, 129–42.Google Scholar

2 Berman, M., Social Change and Scientific Organization: The Royal Institution, 1799–1844, London, 1978.Google Scholar

3 Morrell, J. and Thackray, A., Gentlemen of Science: Early Years of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Oxford, 1981.Google Scholar

4 Boas-Hall, M., All Scientists Now, Cambridge, 1984Google Scholar; MacLeod, R., ‘Whigs and savants: reflections on the Reform Movement in the Royal Society, 1830–1848’, in Metropolis and Province: Science in British Culture, 1780–1850 (ed. Inkster, I. and Morrell, J.), London, 1977, 5590Google Scholar; Morus, I. R., ‘Correlation and control: William Robert Grove and the construction of a new philosophy of scientific reform’, Studies in History and Philosophy of Science (1991), 22, 589621.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

5 Cannon, , op. cit. (1)Google Scholar; Secord, J., Controversy in Victorian Geology, Princeton, 1985Google Scholar; Ashworth, W., ‘The calculating eye: Baily, Herschel, Babbage and the business of astronomy’, BJHS (1994), 27, 409–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

6 Grove, W. R., On the Correlation of Physical Forces, London, 1846Google Scholar; Morus, I. R., ‘The Politics of Power: Reform and Regulation in the Work of William Robert Grove’, Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1989Google Scholar; and Morus, , op. cit. (4).Google Scholar

7 [Chambers, R.], Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, London, 1844Google Scholar, new edition with Introduction by J. Secord, Chicago, 1994; Secord, J., ‘Behind the veil: Robert Chambers and Vestiges’, in History, Humanity and Evolution (ed. Moore, J. R.), Cambridge, 1989, 165–94.Google Scholar

8 For a discussion of such literature see Dolby, R. G. A., ‘On the autonomy of pure science: the construction and maintenance of barriers between scientific establishments and popular culture’, in Scientific Establishments and Hierarchies (ed. Elias, N., Martins, H. and Whitley, R.), Dordrecht, 1982, 267–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

9 See Laudan, R., ‘Natural alliance or forced marriage? Changing relations between the histories of science and technology’, Technology and Culture (1995), 36 (Supplement), S1728.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

10 Burke, P., Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe, London, 1978Google Scholar; Darnton, R., The Great Cat Massacre, Harmondsworth, 1984Google Scholar; Thompson, E. P., Customs in Common, Harmondsworth, 1993.Google Scholar

11 Williams, R., Culture and Society, Harmondsworth, 1961Google Scholar; Hobsbawm, E. and Ranger, T. (eds.), The Invention of Tradition, Cambridge, 1983Google Scholar; Colley, L., Britons: Forging the Nation 1707–1837, New Haven, 1992.Google Scholar

12 For an overview of recent discussions of the historiography of popular science see Cooter, R. and Pumfrey, S., ‘Separate spheres and public places: reflections on the history of science popularization and science in popular culture’, History of Science (1994), 32, 237–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar For a discussion of ‘cultural’ studies of the sciences see Dear, P., ‘Cultural history of science: an overview with reflections’, Science, Technology, and Human Values (1995), 20, 150–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

13 The term ‘cultural space’ here is used to suggest a more generalized notion of the concept of ‘evidential context’ introduced by Trevor Pinch to define the setting within which particular episodes of experimental work gain their significances. See Pinch, T., ‘Towards an analysis of scientific observation: the externality and evidential significance of observational reports in physics’, Social Studies of Science (1985), 15, 335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

14 Babbage, C., Reflections on the Decline of Science in England, London, 1830Google Scholar; and The Exposition of 1851, London, 1851.Google Scholar

15 Babbage, C., On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures, London, 1832Google Scholar; Ashworth, , op. cit. (5).Google Scholar

16 Schaffer, S., ‘Babbage's intelligence: calculating engines and the factory system’, Critical Inquiry (1994), 21, 203–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

17 Behagg, C., ‘Secrecy, ritual and folk violence: the opacity of the workplace in the first half of the nineteenth century’, in Popular Culture and Custom in Nineteenth-Century England (ed. Storch, R.), London, 1982, 154–79.Google Scholar

18 Prothero, I., Artisans and Politics in early Nineteenth-Century London: John Gast and his Times, London, 1981Google Scholar; Rule, J., ‘The property of skill in the period of manufacture’, in The Historical Meanings of Work (ed. Joyce, P.), Cambridge, 1987, 99118.Google Scholar

19 Behagg, , op. cit. (17).Google Scholar

20 [Wright, T.], Habits and Customs of the Working Classes, by a Journeyman Engineer, London, 1867, 85.Google Scholar

21 Behagg, C., ‘The democracy of work, 1820–1850’, British Trade Unionism, 1780–1850: The Formative Years (ed. Rule, John), London, 1988, 162–77.Google Scholar

22 See, for example, Senior, N., An Outline of the Science of Political Economy, London, 1836.Google Scholar An exhaustive analysis of contemporary discussions of machinery is Berg, M., The Machinery Question and the Making of Political Economy, Cambridge, 1980.Google Scholar

23 Babbage, , op. cit. (15).Google Scholar

24 Babbage, , op. cit. (15), 175.Google Scholar This became known as the ‘Babbage principle’. See Braverman, H., Labor and Monopoly Capital, New York, 1974.Google Scholar

25 Babbage, , op. cit. (15), 174 and 54.Google Scholar

26 Barlow, P., A Treatise on the Manufactures and Machinery of Great Britain, London, 1836, 91.Google Scholar

27 Ure, A., The Philosophy of Manufactures, London, 1835, 1314.Google Scholar

28 For a comparative study of Babbage and Ure on these matters see Rosenbloom, R. S., ‘Men and machines: some nineteenth century analyses of mechanization’, Technology and Culture (1964), 5, 489511.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

29 Ure, , op. cit. (27), 20–1.Google Scholar

30 Ure, , op. cit. (27), 301.Google Scholar Things had clearly changed a great deal by the time Engels visited much the same mills a decade later. Engels, F., Condition of the Working Class in England, Harmondsworth, 1987Google Scholar; originally published in German, 1845.

31 Gaskell, P., Artisans and Machinery, London, 1836.Google Scholar

32 Gaskell, P., op. cit. (31), 357–8.Google Scholar

33 Gaskell, P., op. cit. (31), 361–2.Google Scholar

34 Hodgskin, T., Popular Political Economy, London, 1827.Google Scholar

35 See, for example, the excerpt from the Pioneer in Berg, M., Technology and Toil in Nineteenth Century Britain, London, 1979, 90–1.Google Scholar

36 Hodgskin, T., Natural and Artificial Rights to Property Contrasted, London, 1832, 180–1.Google Scholar

37 Wahrman, D., Imagining the Middle Class: The Political Representation of Class in Britain, c. 1780–1840, Cambridge, 1995.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

38 Anderson, P., The Printed Image and the Transformation of Popular Culture, 1790–1860, Oxford, 1991.Google Scholar

39 ‘London Mechanics' Institution’, Mechanic's Magazine (1823), 1, 99102.Google Scholar

40 ‘Preface’, Mechanic's Magazine (1823), 1, pp. iiiiv, on p. iii.Google Scholar

41 Russell, C., Science and Social Change, 1700–1900, London, 1983, 139–46Google Scholar; Golinski, J., Science as Public Culture: Chemistry and Enlightenment in Britain, 1760–1820, Cambridge, 1992, 243–5.Google Scholar

42 ‘London Mechanics' Institution’, op. cit. (39), 99100.Google Scholar

43 Kelly, T., George Birkbeck, Pioneer of Adult Education, Liverpool, 1957.Google Scholar

44 McCalman, I., Radical Underworld: Prophets, Revolutionaries and Pornographers in London, 1795–1840, Cambridge, 1988, 181203Google Scholar; Royle, E. and Walvin, J., English Radicals and Reformers, 1760–1848, London, 1982, 124–41.Google Scholar

45 Omega, , ‘London Mechanics' Institute’, Mechanic's Magazine (1823), 1, 147–8, on 147.Google Scholar

46 ‘London Mechanics' Institution’, Mechanic's Magazine (1823), 1, 210–11, on 210.Google Scholar

47 ‘Public meeting for the establishment of the London Mechanics' Institute’, Mechanic's Magazine (1823), 1, 177–92.Google Scholar

48 Mechanic's Magazine, op. cit. (47), 188.Google Scholar

49 Mechanic's Magazine, op. cit. (47), 190.Google Scholar

50 Telltruth, Tom, ‘London Mechanics' Institution’, Mechanic's Magazine (1823), 1, 195–8, on 196.Google Scholar

51 L.M., ‘London Mechanics' Institution’, Mechanic's Magazine (1823), 1, 234–6, on 236.Google Scholar

52 ‘London Mechanics' Institution’, Mechanic's Magazine (1823), 1, 236–8.Google Scholar

53 ‘London Mechanics' Institution’, Mechanic's Magazine (1823), 1, 227–9.Google Scholar

54 McCalman, , op. cit. (44), 183–4.Google Scholar

55 Berg, , op. cit. (22), 169–73.Google Scholar

56 ‘London Mechanics' Institution’, Mechanic's Magazine (1824), 2, 306–8, on 308.Google Scholar

57 Shapin, S. and Barnes, B., ‘Science, nature and control: interpreting Mechanics' Institutes’, Social Studies of Science (1977), 7, 3174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

58 Behagg, C., Politics and Production in the Early Nineteenth Century, London, 1990.Google Scholar

59 ‘London Mechanics' Institution’, Mechanic's Magazine (1824), 3, 187–92, on 192.Google Scholar

60 ‘London Mechanics' Institution’, Mechanic's Magazine (1825), 4, 232–40, on 239.Google Scholar

61 Mechanic's Magazine, op. cit. (60), 239.Google Scholar

62 Mechanic's Magazine, op. cit. (60), 239.Google Scholar

63 Rule, , op. cit. (18)Google Scholar; Prothero, , op. cit. (18).Google Scholar

64 Hodgskin, , op. cit. (36).Google Scholar

65 Herschel, J., Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Knowledge, London, 1830, 70.Google Scholar

66 Telltruth, , op. cit. (50)Google Scholar. Drives towards a new respectability by artisan radicals are well documented. See McCalman, , op. cit. (44)Google Scholar; Prothero, , op. cit. (18)Google Scholar, as well as Francis Place's autobiography: Thale, M. (ed.), The Autobiography of Francis Place, Cambridge, 1972.Google Scholar

67 Dutton, H., The Patent System and Inventive Activity during the Industrial Revolution, 1750–1852, Manchester, 1984.Google Scholar

68 Dutton, , op. cit. (67), 110.Google Scholar

69 Dutton, , op. cit. (67), 6975Google Scholar; MacLeod, C., Inventing the Industrial Revolution: The English Patent System, 1600–1800, Cambridge, 1988, 5874.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

70 Bathe, D. and Bathe, G., Jacob Perkins: His Inventions, his Times and his Contemporaries, Philadelphia, 1943.Google Scholar For his Philadelphia background see Sinclair, B., Philadelphia's Philosopher Mechanics, Baltimore, 1974.Google Scholar

71 Stokes, M. V., ‘The Lowther Arcade in the Strand’, London Topographical Record (1974), 23, 119–28.Google Scholar

72 Altick, R., The Shows of London, Cambridge, MA, 1978.Google Scholar

73 ‘New Exhibition Room, Adelaide Street, Strand’, Literary Gazette (1832), 16, 378.Google Scholar

74 Quoted in Altick, , op. cit. (72), 377.Google Scholar

75 Society for the Illustration and Encouragement of Practical Science, Gallery for the Exhibition of Objects Blending Instruction with Amusement, Adelaide Street, and Lowther Arcade, West Strand. Catalogue for May, 1836, 14th edn, London, 1836.Google Scholar

76 Catalogue, op. cit. (75), 37.Google Scholar

77 Menebrea, L. F., ‘Sketch of the analytic engine invented by Charles Babbage’Google Scholar (tr. A. Lovelace), Taylor's Scientific Memoirs (1843), 3, 666731, on 706.Google Scholar

78 Ferguson, E. S. (ed.), Early Engineering Reminiscences (1815–40) of George Escol Sellars, Washington, DC, 1965, 131–2.Google Scholar

79 For a contemporary account of the financial role of the coffee houses see [Evans, D. M.], City Men and City Manners: The City; or, the Physiology of London Business, London, 1852.Google Scholar

80 Saxton Diary, Smithsonian Institution Archives, Washington, DC, 17 November 1832.

81 Cunningham, P., Handbook of London, Past and Present, 2nd edn, London, 1850Google Scholar; Punch (1843), 5, 91.Google Scholar

82 Adelaide Gallery Handbill, Adelaide Gallery File, Theatre Museum, London.

83 Harris, N., Humbug, Boston, MA, 1973, 98.Google Scholar

84 Poe, E. A., ‘The balloon-hoax’, The Science Fiction of Edgar Allen Poe (ed. Beaver, H.), Harmondsworth, 1976, 110–23Google Scholar, first published anonymously in the New York Sun, 13 April 1844.

85 Mason, T. M., Remarks on the Ellipsoidal Balloon, London, 1843.Google Scholar

86 ‘The Royal Polytechnic Institution’, Patent Journal and Inventor's Magazine (1848), 4, 256–7, on 157.Google Scholar

87 ‘The Royal Polytechnic Institution’, Patent Journal and Inventor's Magazine (1848), 4, 411.Google Scholar

88 Cunningham, , op. cit. (81).Google Scholar

89 Nowrojee, J. and Merwanjee, H., Journal of a Residence of Two and a Half years in Great Britain, London, 1841, 120.Google Scholar

90 Lampe, D., The Tunnel, London, 1964.Google Scholar

91 Beamish, R., Memoir of the Life of Sir Marc Isambard Brunel, London, 1862.Google Scholar

92 Beamish, , op. cit. (91), 206.Google Scholar

93 Beamish, , op. cit. (91), 208–10.Google Scholar

94 Cooper, C., ‘The Portsmouth system of manufacture’, Technology and Culture (1984), 25, 182225, on 213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

95 Beamish, , op. cit. (91), 213.Google Scholar

96 Babbage, C., Passages from the Life of a Philosopher, London, 1864, 279.Google Scholar

97 Beamish, , op. cit. (91), 208.Google Scholar

98 Brunel, M. I., ‘Description of a new plan of tunneling, calculated for opening a roadway under the Thames’, Mechanic's Magazine (1823), 1, 65–7, on 66–7.Google Scholar

99 ‘The Thames Tunnel’, Mirror of Literature, Amusement and Instruction (1836), 27, 160Google Scholar; ibid. (1837), 29, 208.

100 Hawthorne, N., English Notebooks, London, 1941, 232–3.Google Scholar

101 Lampe, , op. cit. (90), 210Google Scholar

102 ‘National Gallery of Practical Science’, Literary Gazette (1833), 17, 730.Google Scholar

103 Morus, I. R., ‘Currents from the underworld: electricity and the technology of display in early Victorian England’, Isis (1993), 84, 5069.Google Scholar

104 Extracts from the Private Letters of the Late Sir William Fothergill Cooke, London, 1895, 8.Google Scholar

105 Wheatstone, Charles to Cooke, William Fothergill, 20 01 1838Google Scholar. Cooke Papers, vol. 1, Institution of Electrical Engineers, London.

106 ‘National Repository’, Mechanic's Magazine (1829), 11, 5860, on 60.Google Scholar

107 The earliest were of course contemporary. Babbage, , op. cit. (15)Google Scholar; Ure, , op. cit. (27).Google Scholar

108 Richards, T., The Commodity Culture of Victorian England, London, 1991.Google Scholar

109 Morus, I. R., ‘Different experimental lives: Michael Faraday and William Sturgeon’, History of Science (1992), 30, 128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

110 Berg, , op. cit. (22).Google Scholar

111 Joule, J. P., ‘Experiments and observations on the mechanical powers of electro-magnetism, steam, and horses’, Scientific Papers of James Prescott Joule, 2 vols., London, 1887, ii, 111.Google Scholar

112 Joule, , op. cit. (111), i.Google Scholar

113 Cardwell, D., James Joule: A Biography, Manchester, 1989.Google Scholar

114 Sturgeon, W., ‘Description of an electro-magnetic machine for turning machinery’, Annals of Electricity (1836), 1, 75–8.Google Scholar

115 Davenport, W. R., Thomas Davenport: Pioneer Inventor, Montpelier, VT, 1929.Google Scholar

116 ‘Davenport's electro-magnetic engine’, Mechanic's Magazine (1837), 27, 404–5.Google Scholar

117 ‘Electro-magnetic locomotive’, Railway Times (1842), 5, 1012.Google Scholar

118 L., ‘Electro-magnetic power’, Railway Times (1842), 5, 1342.Google Scholar

119 Joule, , ‘On electro-magnetic forces’, op. cit. (111), ii, 1926, 2739.Google Scholar

120 Joule, , op. cit. (111)Google Scholar. See also Morton, A., ‘Concepts of power: natural philosophy and the uses of machines in mid-eighteenth-century London’, BJHS (1995), 28, 6378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

121 Mechanic's Magazine, op. cit. (59), 187–92, on 192.Google Scholar

122 Mechanic's Magazine, op. cit. (59), 92.Google Scholar

123 Faraday, , quoted in the Literary Gazette, 2 02 1839.Google Scholar Quoted in Buckland, G., Fox Talbot and the Invention of Photography, London, 1980, 39.Google Scholar

124 Grove, W. R., ‘On a voltaic process for etching daguerreotype plates’, Philosophical Magazine (1842), 20, 1824, on 24.Google Scholar

125 Smee, A., Elements of Electro-metallurgy, or the Art of Working in Metals by the Galvanic Fluid, London, 1841, 147.Google Scholar

126 Ryland, W., ‘The plated wares and electroplating trades’, in The Resources, Products, and Industrial History of Birmingham and the Midland Hardware District (ed. Timmins, S.), London, 1866, 494.Google Scholar

127 Shaw, G., A Manual of Electro-metallurgy, London, 1842Google Scholar; Smee, , op. cit. (125)Google Scholar; Walker, C. V., Electrotype Manipulations, London, 1843.Google Scholar

128 Walker, , op. cit. (127), 56.Google Scholar

129 Walker, , op. cit. (127), 6.Google Scholar

130 Walker, , op. cit. (127), 6.Google Scholar

131 On the industrialization of photography and its relationships to the electroplating industry see Bargos, S. and White, W. B., The Daguerreotype: 19th Century Technology and Modern Science, Washington, DC, 1991, 4951.Google Scholar

132 Altick, , op. cit. (72).Google Scholar

133 Quoted in Chilton, D. and Coley, N., ‘The laboratories of the Royal Institution in the nineteenth century’, Ambix (1980), 27, 173203, on 177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

134 Richards, , op. cit. (108).Google Scholar